Aerogéis de hidroxipropil metilcelulose (HPMC) com diferentes graus de substituição por grupos metila (DS) e hidroxipropila (MS) foram preparados por liofilização utilizando diferentes ácidos como agentes de reticulação, a saber: ácido cítrico, ácido oxálico e ácido tereftálico. Nanocristais de celulose bacteriana (BCN) neutros e negativamente carregados foram utilizados como carga de reforço nas concentrações de 5% (m/m) e 15% (m/m) em relação à massa da matriz. Os resultados indicaram que HPMCs com menores valores de DS e maiores valores de MS resultam em aerogéis com maior eficiência na reticulação. Além disso, agentes de reticulação insolúveis em água minimizaram a capacidade de reticulação, enquanto agentes de reticulação com uma maior quantidade de grupos funcionais ácidos aumentaram a probabilidade e a eficiência da reação de reticulação das cadeias de HPMC. Os aerogéis apresentaram alta estabilidade em água, solventes orgânicos e meio ácido, além de apresentar resiliência quanto à deformação em meio aquoso. Os aerogéis apresentaram porosidade de ~98%, densidade média variando de 0,021 à 0,026 (± 0,002) g.cm-3, módulo de Young variando de 101 à 150 (± 19) kPa e capacidade média de absorção de água de 18 g de água/g de aerogel. A adição de carga de reforço resultou em um aumento de até 13% na densidade aparente do aerogel e um aumento médio de 20% no módulo de Young dos materiais. A morfologia dos poros dos aerogéis sintetizados é irregular, com ampla faixa de distribuição de tamanho de poros, podendo variar cerca de 5 µm a 500 µm. Nos aerogéis reforçados, as BCNs encontram-se preferencialmente no interior das paredes dos aerogéis, onde o reforço mecânico é mais eficiente. Isotermas de adsorção de 17α-etinilestradiol (EE) foram realizadas, resultando em capacidades de remoção de até 90%, com possibilidade de reciclo. As isotermas indicam que a matriz HPMC J5MS possui maior afinidade para adsorção de EE e que a adição de BCNs aumenta a afinidade das moléculas pelo substrato. As isotermas foram melhor ajustadas com o modelo de Freundlich, indicando que a adição de 5% de BCNs aumenta a capacidade de adsorção do aerogel, enquanto a adição de 15% de BCNs provoca uma diminuição nesta propriedade. / Aerogels of Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC), with different degrees of substitution for methyl groups (MS) and hydroxypropyl groups (DS) were prepared by freeze-drying. The HPMCs were combined with three organic acids as crosslinking agents: citric acid, oxalic acid and terephthalic acid. Bacterial cellulose nanocrystals (BCN) neutral and negatively charged were used as reinforcement particles from 5% to 15% m/m in relation to the polymer mass. The results indicated that HPMC with lower DS and higher MS levels result in aerogels with higher crosslink efficiency. Besides that, crosslinking agents that are water insoluble minimized the crosslinking capacity, while crosslinking agents with more functional acid groups presented higher probability and efficiency in the crosslinking reaction. The aerogels presented high stability in water, organic solvents and acid media, and presented mechanical resilience in aqueous media. The resulting aerogels presented porosity of ~98%, average density of 0.021 to 0.026 (± 0.002) g.cm-3, Young modulus of 101 to 150 (± 19) kPa and an average capacity of water absorption of 18 g of water/g of aerogel. The addition of reinforcement particles resulted in an increase in density up to 13% and an average increase in the Young modulus of 20%. The morphology of the aerogels was irregular, with a wide pore size distribution, varying between de 5 µm a 500 µm. In the reinforced aerogels, the BCNs were found preferably inside the aerogels walls, were the mechanical reinforcement is more efficient. Adsorption isotherms of 17 ethinyl estradiol (EE) revealed removal capacity up to 90% and possibility of adsorbent recycling. The isotherms indicated that the HPMC J5MS has higher affinity for EE molecules and that the use of BCNs increases aerogels affinity. The isotherms were well fitted with the Freundlich model, indicating that the addition of 5% BCN increases the adsorption capacity of the aerogels, while the addition of 15 % BCN results in a decrease in this property.

A furosemida é um fármaco de ação diurética e amplamente utilizado em tratamentos de doenças renais, cardíacas e pulmonares. Sua absorção é problemática e de alta variabilidade inter e intraindividual. Este fármaco tem sido classificado como pertencente às classes II (baixa solubilidade e alta permeabilidade) ou IV (baixa permeabilidade e baixa solubilidade) do Sistema de Classificação de Biofarmacêutica (SCB). Em estudos anteriores da equipe de pesquisa, SPRICIGO e colaboradores (2008) e SILVA (2014) desenvolveram complexos de furosemida com hidroxipropil-&#946;-ciclodextrina que permitiram a otimização da solubilidade deste fármaco. Entretanto, dados sobre a sua permeabilidade intestinal, quando complexado, não foram determinados. Somando-se a isto, a literatura apresenta informações distintas em relação a este parâmetro, o que corrobora a importância de se avaliar a permeabilidade deste fármaco. Diversas técnicas têm sido empregadas para a avaliação da permeabilidade intestinal dos fármacos. No presente trabalho empregou-se o modelo de perfusão in situ de passagem tripla, cuja técnica possibilita avaliar a permeabilidade em três segmentos diferentes em um mesmo animal e ainda, apresenta características interessantes, pois trata-se de um método que proporciona, durante todo o experimento, condições mais próximas daquelas encontradas durante o processo in vivo de absorção de fármacos no intestino tais como: suprimento sanguíneo, inervação intacta, preservação das proteínas transportadoras de membranas e presença da camada de muco. O presente trabalho foi dividido nas seguintes etapas: (i) obtenção da furosemida complexada com hidroxipropil-&#946;-ciclodextrina, (ii) caracterização dos fármacos utilizando técnicas de análises térmicas, (iii) estudo de perfusão in situ de passagem tripla nos três segmentos intestinais (duodeno, jejuno e íleo) de ratos machos Wistar na ausência e na presença de inibidores da glicoproteína P e de enzimas metabolizadoras CYP3A4 com posterior análise estatística do impacto da ciclodextrina e inibidores na permeabilidade da furosemida e; (iv) análise histológica das microvilosidades intestinais após o ensaio de perfusão in situ nos três segmentos intestinais. Os valores encontrados em cada segmento para furosemida complexada foram: 8,58 ± 0,002 x 10-5 cm.s-1; 9,15 ± 0,003 x10-5 cm.s-1 e; 8,06 ± 0,002 x 10-5 cm.s-1, respectivamente para duodeno, jejuno e íleo enquanto que para furosemida pura encontraram-se os seguintes: 3,42 ± 0,08 x 10-5 cm.s-1 para duodeno; 3,87 ± 0,11 x 10-5 cm.s-1 para jejuno e 3,08 ± 0,001 x 10-5 cm.s-1 para íleo. Assim sendo, os valores obtidos para a permeabilidade da furosemida complexada foram significativamente superiores (p < 0,05) aos da furosemida pura, sugerindo que, a ciclodextrina pode ter influência no mecanismo de transporte da furosemida, que é via passiva paracelular. Quanto aos mecanismos envolvidos na permeabilidade da furosemida através dos enterócitos, pode-se sugerir que observou-se pouca influência dos inibidores da glicoproteína P (P-gp) e da enzima CYP3A4, sugerindo que não há uma participação importante destes mecanismos em sua absorção intestinal. / Furosemide, which is a diuretic drug, is widely used in heart, kidney and pulmonary disease treatments. The absorption is problematic with high variability inter and intra individuals. This drug has been classified as belonging to class II (low solubility and high permeability) or IV (low permeability and low solubility) of the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS). In previous studies of the research team, Spricigo and colleagues (2008) and Silva (2014) developed complex of furosemide with hydroxypropyl-&#946;-cyclodextrin which allowed the optimization of the solubility of this drug. However, datas concerning it\'s intestinal permeability, when complexed, have not been determined. Addicted to this, the literature shows many information regarding to this parameter, which confirms the importance of the evaluation of the permeability of this drug. Some techniques have been employed in order to evaluate the intestinal permeability of drugs. In the present work, a triple single-pass intestinal perfusion technique was used for three different segments. This technique enables the evaluation of the permeability of different segments in the same animal and also has interesting features such as: it provides during all the experiment conditions closer to those found in in vivo process of a drug absorption in the gut; blood supply; intact innervations; preservation of membrane transporter proteins and presence of mucus layer. This study was divided into the following steps: (i) obtaining furosemide complexed with hydroxypropyl-&#946;-cyclodextrin, (ii) characterization of drugs using techniques of thermal analysis, (iii) perfusion study in situ triple passage in three segments (duodenum, jejunum and ileum) from male Wistar rats in the absence and presence of inhibitors of P-glycoprotein and metabolizing enzymes CYP3A4 and subsequential statistical analysis of the impact of the cyclodextrin and the inhibitors in the permeability of furosemide and (iv) histological analysis of intestinal microvilli after in situ perfusion assay in three segments. The values found in each segment for complexed furosemide were: 8,58 ± 0,002 x 10-5 cm.s-1; 9,15 ± 0,003 x 10-5 cm.s-1; 8,06 ± 0,002 x 10-5 cm.s-1, respectively for duodenum, jejunum and ileum while for pure furosemide, the values were: 3,42 ± 0,08 x 10-5 cm.s-1 to duodenum; 3,87 ± 0,11 x 10-5 cm.s-1 to jejunum and 3,08 ± 0,001 x 10-5 cm.s-1 to ileum. Thus, the values obtained for the permeability of the complexed furosemide were significantly higher (p < 0,05) than those found for pure furosemide, suggesting that the cyclodextrin might have an influence on the transport mechanism of furosemide, which is passive paracellular route. About the mechanisms involved in the permeability of furosemide through the enterocytes, it can be suggested that there was little effect of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitors and CYP3A4 enzyme, suggesting that there is an important role of these mechanisms in the furosemide intestinal absorption.

L'accumulation de déchets agricoles tels que la bagasse et le développement d’alternatives aux polymères issus de la pétrochimie ont reçu une attention croissante au cours des deux dernières décennies, due à l'augmentation de la population et à la préoccupation croissante pour la préservation de l'environnement. Cette étude tente de résoudre ces problèmes à l’aide de deux approches principales.La première est liée à des composites à base de papier et de liant naturel et la seconde est associée à la préparation et à la caractérisation de dérivés cellulosiques présentant des propriétés cristaux liquides. En ce qui concerne les composites à base de papier et de liant naturel, la modification par dénaturation d’isolat de protéines de soja (SPI), l'ajout d'acrylamide et le changement de pH améliorent certaines propriétés et rendent les SPI plus utiles et acceptables dans diverses applications. Des expériences préliminaires ont été menées pour déterminer la concentration optimale de SPI permettant d’obtenir des propriétés mécaniques et physiques maximales. Des concentrations de 0,5%, 2,5%, et 5% ont été utilisées et 2.5% correspond à la concentration optimale. Pour augmenter les propriétés adhésives du SPI, l’acrylamide a été utilisé comme un modificateur supplémentaire dans des proportions 1,5%, 2,5% et 5%. L’addition nucléophile de l'acrylamide aux chaînes de protéines en milieu alcalin améliore les propriétés de solubilité du SPI et augmente ses propriétés adhésives. L'effet supplémentaire de l'acrylamide sur le SPI est prononcé sur les propriétés mécaniques et physiques. Comme la charge nette du SPI peut être modifiée en faisant varier le pH du milieu aqueux, la corrélation entre les propriétés mécaniques et physiques des feuilles de papier et le pH du SPI a été étudiée. Les pH utilisés ont été 3, 5, 7 et 10, où le pH 5 est le point isoélectrique (IEP) du SPI.A ce pH, le nombre de charges positives et négatives est pratiquement identique. La seconde approche a consisté à préparer et caractériser une série de dérivés cellulosiques 4 - alkyoxybenzoyloxypropyl (ABPC-n). Ces dérivés ont été synthétisés par estérification d'hydroxypropylcellulose (HPC) avec un DS 3 par l'acide 4- alkoxybenzoic portant 1, 2, 3, 4, 7, 8, 10, 12 et 14 atomes de carbone dans la chaîne latérale. D'autre part, de la pâte debagasse a été préparée et caractérisée à partir bagasse égyptienne. L’Hydroxypropylation a ensuite été menée sur la cellulose obtenue et de l’HPC partiellement substituée a été obtenue. En outre, l'estérification de ce dernier avec des acides 4-alkyloxybenzoic portant 2, 10 et 12 atomes de carbone dans la chaîne latérale a été réalisée et les dérivés ont été désignés (ABPC-m). La structure moléculaire du HPC partiellement substitué et des deux esters (ABPC-n et-m ABPC) a été confirmée par spectroscopies infrarouge à transformée de Fourier (FT-IR) et 1H RMN. Les phases cristal liquide (LC) et les transitions de phases ont été étudiées par microscopie en lumière polarisée (PLM) et calorimétrie différentielle à balayage (DSC), respectivement. Pour étudier les propriétés lyotropiques, différentes concentrations de ces échantillons ont été dissous dans le diméthylacétamide (DMA) (20, 30, 40, 50 et 60% en poids) et la concentration critique a été déterminée par réfractométrie en mesurant l'indice de réfraction des solutions dans le DMA et en traçant l’évolution des indices de réfraction en fonction des concentrations. Pour ABPC-n, nous avons observé que les températures de transition vitreuse (Tg) et de compensation (Tc) diminuent avec la longueur de la chaîne alkoxy et que la gamme mésomorphique (Tm-Tc) diminue avec la longueur de la chaîne alkoxy. / The present study deals with utilization of Egyptian bagasse in both conventional and non-conventional fields. The conventional application is devoted to papermaking, where bagasse pulp is the most appropriate pulp for this purpose due to the suitability of fiber length and high cellulose and hemicellulose contents. The non-conventional application is dedicated to the preparation of cellulosic derivatives having liquid crystalline properties.The first approach deals with using modified soy protein isolate (SPI) as binder for cellulosic fibers in paper composites. Modification of SPI was carried out through i) denaturation with urea and NaOH. ii) addition of acrylamide to the denatured SPI. iii) changing pH of SPI. These types of modification were used to improve the adhesion properties of SPI. Pronounced mechanical and physical properties of paper sheets filled with 0.5, 2.5 or 5% denatured SPI was obtained upon using 2.5%. The optimum condition of SPI addition was used in ii and iii modifications. The additional effect of acrylamide on SPI was pronounced where the mechanical and physical properties were enhanced. Correlation between the mechanical and physical properties of paper sheets with the pH of SPI was studied. The used pHs were 3, 5, 7 and 10.The results showed that the maximum breaking length was obtainedAbstract - xix -at the isoelectric point of SPI at pH 5 (at the isoelectric point (IEP) the number of positive and negative charges on the polyion is the same, giving a net charge of zero) and it began to decrease when the pH is increased to pH 10. Both the burst index and the tear index showed parallel trends.In the second approach, a series of 4- alkyoxybenzoyloxypropyl cellulose (ABPC-n) samples were synthesized via the esterification of hydroxypropyl cellulose (HPC) with 4-alkoxybenzoic acid bearing alkoxy chain with different lengths. On the other hand, cellulose was isolated in pure form from Egyptian bagasse pulp. Hydroxypropylation was then conducted on the isolated cellulose. 4-alkyoxybenzoyloxypropyl cellulose (ABPC-m) samples were synthesized via the esterification of the latter product with the same acid, bearing 2, 10 and 12 carbon atoms in the side chain and characterized.The molecular structure of both esters (ABPC-n and ABPC-m) was confirmed by Fourier transform infrared (FT-IR) and 1H NMR spectroscopy. The liquid crystalline (LC) phases and transition behaviors were investigated using polarized light microscopy (PLM), and differential scanning calorimetry (DSC), respectively. The lyotropic behavior of the derivatives was investigated in DMA solutions using PLM andAbstract - xx -the critical concentration was firstly determined via refractive index measurements.

A hidroxipropil-metil-celulose (HPMC) é um éter de celulose que possui estrutura variável dependendo da quantidade de grupos metila, apolares, e hidroxipropoxila, polares, inseridos na cadeia polimérica celulósica. A polaridade do polímero é controlada através da quantidade de grupos metila (DS) e de hidroxipropoxila (MS) e afeta as propriedades de filmes poliméricos finos e espessos, além de alterar as características de liberação controlada de princípios ativos (neste caso nicotina) incorporados em filmes de HPMC, reticulados através de uma reação de esterificação com ácido cítrico. Com exceção do polímero com baixo DS e alto MS (e por consequência mais polar), filmes finos apresentam valores de energia superficial próximos aos de poliestireno ou poli(metacrilato de metila) (~41 mJ/m/2), indicando forte orientação molecular dos grupos metila ao ar, de acordo com um modelo apresentado. Esta orientação favoreceu as interações com o ar, que se organizou na superfície, formando pequenas cavidades superficiais, de acordo com imagens de microscopia de força atômica (AFM). Apesar de seguirem a mesma ordem de acordo com a polaridade dos polímeros, os valores de energia superficial observados para filmes espessos foram mais elevados, devido a uma menor quantidade de grupos metila orientados ao ar, acarretados por uma maior interação intermolecular no \"bulk\" do filme polimérico e uma consequente diminuição nos graus de liberdade da molécula polimérica. Um modelo para a estrutura de filmes espessos é proposto, no qual a variação nos valores de DS e MS explica as diferentes estruturas superficiais observadas em imagens de AFM. A incorporação de nicotina em filmes espessos também sofre influência dos valores de DS e MS; uma maior incorporação do princípio ativo foi observada em maiores DS e menores MS. A liberação controlada do princípio ativo também é influenciada por esses fatores estruturais, porém o pH do meio externo também é um fator a ser considerado: somente em pHs maiores que 8,8, onde a nicotina se encontra majoritariamente na sua forma neutra/desprotonada, pode-se observar uma cinética mais lenta e controlada para o polímero de maior MS e menor DS. A força iônica também influencia a cinética de liberação, porém em uma extensão muito menor que uma variação no pH. Os resultados obtidos também foram analisados segundo o modelo de liberação de Korsmeyer-Peppas, que quantifica a interação princípio ativo-matriz polimérica e descreve o mecanismo de liberação através do parâmetro difusional n. Ao final, baseado nos resultados obtidos, pode-se recomendar para uso tópico o polímero J, com menor DS e maior MS, como sendo o mais indicado para Terapia de Reposição de Nicotina (TRN), devido à sua liberação quantitativa e em velocidades mais lentas, possuindo a menor retenção de nicotina ao final do processo dentre os polímeros estudados; em casos de peles fortemente oleosas, mais alcalinas, a indicação do polímero E, com maior DS e menor MS, é recomendada pela sua capacidade de liberar uma maior quantidade de princípio ativo quando em pHs mais elevados. / Hydroxypropyl-methyl-cellulose (HPMC) is a cellulose ether with variable structure, depending on the amount of methyl groups, with apolar characteristics, and hydroxypropyl groups, with polar characteristics, inserted on the polymer backbone chain. The polymer polarity is controlled through the amount of methyl (DS) and hydroxypropyl (MS) groups, and affects the properties of thin and thick polymer films, as well as impacts the active principle release rate (in this case, nicotine) from HPMC polymer films, crosslinked through a esterification reaction with citric acid. With exception of the polymer with low DS and high MS (and consequently, more polar), thin films present surface energy values close to those determined for polystyrene or poly(methyl-methacrylate) (~41 mJ/m2), indicating strong orientation of the methyl groups to the air, according to a proposed model. This orientation favored the interactions with the air, which has been organized at the surface, forming small superficial cavities, according to Atomic Force Microscopy (AFM) images. Despite following the same pattern according to the polymer\'s polarities, values of surface energy observed for thick films were higher, due to a lower amount of methyl groups oriented to the air, driven by a higher interchain interaction in the bulk polymer film and consequent lowering in the polymer molecule degrees of freedom. A model to the thick films structure has been proposed, where the variation in the values of DS and MS explains the differences observed in the AFM images. Nicotine incorporation in thick films is also influenced by the values of DS and MS; a higher incorporation of the active principle has been observed in higher DS and lower MS. The active principle\'s controlled release is influenced by these structural parameters as well, although the medium\'s pH should also be considered: only at pHs higher than 8,8, where nicotine can be found mostly at its neutral/non-protonated form, a slower and controlled release can be observed for the polymer with higher MS and lower DS. The ionic strength influences the release kinetics too, but in a much minor extension than the medium pH does. The results obtained were analyzed using the Korsmeyer-Peppas model, which quantifies the active principle-polymer matrix interaction and describes the release mechanism through the diffusional parameter n. At the end, based on the results obtained, the polymer J, with higher MS and lower DS, can be the most indicated for Nicotine Replacement Therapy (NRT), due to its quantitative release and at lower rates and constant amounts over time, allowing the lowest nicotine retention at the end of the process amongst all evaluated polymers; at highly oily skin, more alkaline, the polymer E, with higher DS and lower MS, can be recommended by its characteristics of more quantitative release under higher pHs.

A furosemida é um fármaco de ação diurética e amplamente utilizado em tratamentos de doenças renais, cardíacas e pulmonares. Sua absorção é problemática e de alta variabilidade inter e intraindividual. Este fármaco tem sido classificado como pertencente às classes II (baixa solubilidade e alta permeabilidade) ou IV (baixa permeabilidade e baixa solubilidade) do Sistema de Classificação de Biofarmacêutica (SCB). Em estudos anteriores da equipe de pesquisa, SPRICIGO e colaboradores (2008) e SILVA (2014) desenvolveram complexos de furosemida com hidroxipropil-&#946;-ciclodextrina que permitiram a otimização da solubilidade deste fármaco. Entretanto, dados sobre a sua permeabilidade intestinal, quando complexado, não foram determinados. Somando-se a isto, a literatura apresenta informações distintas em relação a este parâmetro, o que corrobora a importância de se avaliar a permeabilidade deste fármaco. Diversas técnicas têm sido empregadas para a avaliação da permeabilidade intestinal dos fármacos. No presente trabalho empregou-se o modelo de perfusão in situ de passagem tripla, cuja técnica possibilita avaliar a permeabilidade em três segmentos diferentes em um mesmo animal e ainda, apresenta características interessantes, pois trata-se de um método que proporciona, durante todo o experimento, condições mais próximas daquelas encontradas durante o processo in vivo de absorção de fármacos no intestino tais como: suprimento sanguíneo, inervação intacta, preservação das proteínas transportadoras de membranas e presença da camada de muco. O presente trabalho foi dividido nas seguintes etapas: (i) obtenção da furosemida complexada com hidroxipropil-&#946;-ciclodextrina, (ii) caracterização dos fármacos utilizando técnicas de análises térmicas, (iii) estudo de perfusão in situ de passagem tripla nos três segmentos intestinais (duodeno, jejuno e íleo) de ratos machos Wistar na ausência e na presença de inibidores da glicoproteína P e de enzimas metabolizadoras CYP3A4 com posterior análise estatística do impacto da ciclodextrina e inibidores na permeabilidade da furosemida e; (iv) análise histológica das microvilosidades intestinais após o ensaio de perfusão in situ nos três segmentos intestinais. Os valores encontrados em cada segmento para furosemida complexada foram: 8,58 ± 0,002 x 10-5 cm.s-1; 9,15 ± 0,003 x10-5 cm.s-1 e; 8,06 ± 0,002 x 10-5 cm.s-1, respectivamente para duodeno, jejuno e íleo enquanto que para furosemida pura encontraram-se os seguintes: 3,42 ± 0,08 x 10-5 cm.s-1 para duodeno; 3,87 ± 0,11 x 10-5 cm.s-1 para jejuno e 3,08 ± 0,001 x 10-5 cm.s-1 para íleo. Assim sendo, os valores obtidos para a permeabilidade da furosemida complexada foram significativamente superiores (p < 0,05) aos da furosemida pura, sugerindo que, a ciclodextrina pode ter influência no mecanismo de transporte da furosemida, que é via passiva paracelular. Quanto aos mecanismos envolvidos na permeabilidade da furosemida através dos enterócitos, pode-se sugerir que observou-se pouca influência dos inibidores da glicoproteína P (P-gp) e da enzima CYP3A4, sugerindo que não há uma participação importante destes mecanismos em sua absorção intestinal. / Furosemide, which is a diuretic drug, is widely used in heart, kidney and pulmonary disease treatments. The absorption is problematic with high variability inter and intra individuals. This drug has been classified as belonging to class II (low solubility and high permeability) or IV (low permeability and low solubility) of the Biopharmaceutical Classification System (BCS). In previous studies of the research team, Spricigo and colleagues (2008) and Silva (2014) developed complex of furosemide with hydroxypropyl-&#946;-cyclodextrin which allowed the optimization of the solubility of this drug. However, datas concerning it\'s intestinal permeability, when complexed, have not been determined. Addicted to this, the literature shows many information regarding to this parameter, which confirms the importance of the evaluation of the permeability of this drug. Some techniques have been employed in order to evaluate the intestinal permeability of drugs. In the present work, a triple single-pass intestinal perfusion technique was used for three different segments. This technique enables the evaluation of the permeability of different segments in the same animal and also has interesting features such as: it provides during all the experiment conditions closer to those found in in vivo process of a drug absorption in the gut; blood supply; intact innervations; preservation of membrane transporter proteins and presence of mucus layer. This study was divided into the following steps: (i) obtaining furosemide complexed with hydroxypropyl-&#946;-cyclodextrin, (ii) characterization of drugs using techniques of thermal analysis, (iii) perfusion study in situ triple passage in three segments (duodenum, jejunum and ileum) from male Wistar rats in the absence and presence of inhibitors of P-glycoprotein and metabolizing enzymes CYP3A4 and subsequential statistical analysis of the impact of the cyclodextrin and the inhibitors in the permeability of furosemide and (iv) histological analysis of intestinal microvilli after in situ perfusion assay in three segments. The values found in each segment for complexed furosemide were: 8,58 ± 0,002 x 10-5 cm.s-1; 9,15 ± 0,003 x 10-5 cm.s-1; 8,06 ± 0,002 x 10-5 cm.s-1, respectively for duodenum, jejunum and ileum while for pure furosemide, the values were: 3,42 ± 0,08 x 10-5 cm.s-1 to duodenum; 3,87 ± 0,11 x 10-5 cm.s-1 to jejunum and 3,08 ± 0,001 x 10-5 cm.s-1 to ileum. Thus, the values obtained for the permeability of the complexed furosemide were significantly higher (p < 0,05) than those found for pure furosemide, suggesting that the cyclodextrin might have an influence on the transport mechanism of furosemide, which is passive paracellular route. About the mechanisms involved in the permeability of furosemide through the enterocytes, it can be suggested that there was little effect of P-glycoprotein (P-gp) inhibitors and CYP3A4 enzyme, suggesting that there is an important role of these mechanisms in the furosemide intestinal absorption.

[EN] Different strategies were used to improve physical properties of corn starch based films, with glycerol (30%) as plasticizer, based on increasing their hydrophobic character in order to reduce the materials' water sensitivity. Starch was blended with different components (surfactants and more hydrophobic polymers), with and without compatibilizers, to obtain blend films through different processing techniques (casting, melt blending, compression molding and extrusion). Bilayer film formation by compression molding with starch and poly(e-caprolactone) (PCL) was also studied. The addition of surfactants to starch films obtained by casting gave rise to a decrease in water vapor permeability (WVP), but an increase in the film fragility was observed. Surfactants with lower hydrophilic-lipophilic balance (HLB), solid at room temperature, promoted a fine microstructure in the matrix with smaller lipid particle, which enhanced water vapor barrier properties. Thermo-processing was used to obtain the other films due to its broader industrial application. Starch blends with hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) showed an HPMC dispersed phase in the starch matrix and better water barrier properties, but they were more permeable to oxygen, especially when they contained citric acid (CA) as compatibilizer. CA induced cross-linking in the polymeric matrix, thus slightly increasing film hardness, but decreasing its extensibility. The incorporation of PCL in different ratios to starch films obtained by compression molding gave rise to polymer phase separation, although a small PCL miscibility in the starch rich phase was detected, which reduced the glass transition temperature of the starch phase. The structural heterogeneity and lack of interfacial adhesion between polymers gave rise to fragile films. Nevertheless, small amounts of PCL (10%) reinforced the matrix (increase in the elastic modulus). When the PCL ratio increased, WVP was reduced but oxygen permeability increased. The incorporation of CA as compatibilizer of these blends provoked an increase in the water solubility of the films, by hydrolysis, and improved the mechanical properties of the films when PCL ratio was low (10%), but it did not affect the film barrier properties. The incorporation of polyethylene glycol (PEG 4000) to the blends with a low proportion of PCL did not imply an improvement in the film properties, since it promoted phase separation. Starch-PCL blends with 1:0.05 mass ratio, without compatibilizer, were quite homogenous and exhibited good mechanical properties and stability. In order to incorporate greater amounts of PCL, thus improving film hydrophobicity and stability, PCL was chemically modified by grafting glycidyl methacrylate or glycidyl methacrylate and maleic anhydride (PCL-g), to be used as compatibilizers. Films with 20 % PCL and 2.5 or 5 % of PCL-g showed very good mechanical and barrier properties and stability, inhibiting starch retrogradation. Their barrier properties met the food packaging requirements for a wide number of food products. Bilayer films obtained by compression molding of starch (or starch with 5% PCL) and PCL layers showed very low WVP and oxygen permeability and adequate mechanical properties. The adhesion of bilayers was greatly improved by the application of ascorbic acid and, especially, potassium sorbate, as aqueous solutions, at the interface before compression molding. These compounds, in turn, imparted antioxidant and antimicrobial properties, respectively, to the films, thus improving their potential use as active packaging material for food uses. / [ES] Se han utilizado diversas estrategias para mejorar las propiedades físicas de films a base de almidón de maíz, con glicerol (30 %) como plastificante, basadas en el incremento de su carácter hidrofóbico, para reducir su sensibilidad al agua. El almidón se mezcló con diferentes compuestos (surfactantes y polímeros más hidrofóbicos), con y sin compatilizadores, para la obtención de films mixtos por diferentes técnicas de procesado (casting, mezclado en fundido, moldeo por compresión y extrusión). Se estudió también la formación de films bicapa almidón-poli-e-caprolactona (PCL) mediante moldeo por compresión. La adición de surfactantes a los films de almidón elaborados por casting dio lugar a una disminución de su permeabilidad al vapor de agua (WVP), pero aumentó su fragilidad. Los surfactantes con menor balance hidrófilo-lipófilo (HLB), y sólidos a temperatura ambiente, proporcionaron una microestructura de los films con menor tamaño de partícula, que potenció las propiedades barrera al vapor de agua. Por su mayor aplicabilidad industrial, se emplearon técnicas de termo-procesado para la obtención del resto de films estudiados. Los obtenidos por mezcla con hidroxipropil metilcelulosa (HPMC) presentaron una fase dispersa de HPMC en la matriz de almidón y mejores propiedades barrera al vapor de agua, pero fueron algo más permeables al oxígeno, sobre todo cuando se incorporó ácido cítrico (CA) como compatibilizador. Este provocó entrecruzamiento en la matriz polimérica, incrementado ligeramente su dureza y reduciendo su extensibilidad. La incorporación de PCL en diferentes proporciones a los films de almidón obtenidos por termo-compresión, dio lugar a la separación de fases polímericas, detectándose una pequeña miscibilidad de la PCL en la fase rica en almidón que redujo la temperatura de transición vítrea de la fase amilácea. La heterogeneidad de su estructura y la falta de adhesión entre fases dio lugar a films demasiado frágiles, aunque en pequeña proporción (10%), la PCL reforzó la matriz (aumentó el módulo de elasticidad). Al aumentar la proporción de PCL, disminuyó la WVP de los films, pero aumentó la permeabilidad al oxígeno. La incorporación de CA como compatibilizador de estas mezclas aumentó la solubilidad en agua de los films por efecto de hidrólisis y supuso una mejora en las propiedades mecánicas de los films con baja proporción de PCL (10 %), pero no afectó a sus propiedades barrera. La incorporación de polietilenglicol (PEG 4000) a las mezclas con baja proporción de PCL no mejoró las propiedades de los films, potenciando la separación de fases. Las mezclas almidón:PCL con proporción másica 1:0.05, sin compatibilizador, fueron bastante homogéneas y exhibieron buen comportamiento mecánico y estabilidad. Para incorporar una mayor proporción de PCL, y mejorar la hidrofobicidad y estabilidad de los films, se modificó la PCL por reacción con glicidil metacrilato o anhídrido maleico y glicidil metacrilato (PCL-g), para su uso como compatibilizadores. Los films con 20% de PCL y 2.5 y 5 % de los PCL-g presentaron muy buenas propiedades mecánicas y de barrera al vapor de agua y a los gases y buena estabilidad al inhibir la retrogradación del almidón. Sus propiedades de barrera cumplieron con los requisitos de envasado de un número importante de productos alimentarios. La obtención de films bicapa por termo-compresión a partir de almidón (o almidón con 5% PCL) y PCL proporcionó un material con muy baja permeabilidad al vapor de agua y al oxígeno y buenas propiedades mecánicas. La adhesión entre las capas mejoró en gran medida con la incorporación de ácido ascórbico, y sobre todo de sorbato potásico, en la interfase en forma de disolución acuosa antes de la termo-compresión. Estos compuestos impartieron, a su vez, propiedades antioxidantes y antimicrobianas, respectivamente, a los films, mejorando su uso potencial para el envasad / [CAT] S'han utilitzat diverses estratègies per a millorar les propietats físiques de films a base de midó de dacsa, amb glicerol (30 %) com plastificant, basades en l'increment del seu caràcter hidrofòbic, per a reduir la seua sensibilitat a l'aigüa. El midó es va mesclar amb diferents compostos (surfactants i polímers més hidrofòbics), amb i sense compatibilitzadors, per l'obtenció de films mixtos mitjançant diferents tècniques de processat (càsting, mesclat en fos, modelatge per compressió i extrusió). Es va estudiar també la formació de films bicapa midó-poli-e-caprolactona (PCL) mitjançant modelatge per compressió. L'addició de surfactants als films de midó elaborats per càsting va donar lloc a una disminució de la seua permeabilitat al vapor d'aigüa (WVP), però va augmentar la seua fragilitat. Els surfactants amb menor balanç hidròfil-lipòfil (HLB), i sòlids a temperatura ambient, varen proporcionar una microestructura dels films amb menor grandària de partícula, que varen potenciar les propietats barrera al vapor d'aigüa. Per la seua major aplicabilitat industrial, es van emprar tècniques de termo-processat per l'obtenció de la resta de films estudiats. Aquells obtinguts per mescla amb hidroxipropil-metilcellulosa (HPMC) varen presentar una fase dispersa de HPMC en la matriu de midó i millors propietats barrera al vapor d'aigüa, però varen ser un poc més permeables a l'oxigen, sobretot quan es va incorporar àcid cítric (CA) com compatibilitzador. Aquest va provocar entrecreuament en la matriu polimérica, incrementant lleugerament la seua duresa i reduïnt la seua extensibilitat. La incorporació de PCL en diferents proporcions als films de midó obtinguts per termo-compressió, va donar lloc a la separació de fases polimèriques, detectant-se una xicoteta miscibilitat de la PCL en la fase rica en midó que va reduir la temperatura de transició vítria de la fase amilàcea. L'heterogeneïtat de la seua estructura i la falta d'adhesió entre fases va donar lloc a films massa fràgils, encara que en xicoteta proporció (10%), la PCL va reforçar la matriu (augmentant el mòdul d'elasticitat). Al augmentar la proporció de PCL, va disminuir la WVP dels films, però va augmentar la permeabilitat a l'oxigen. La incorporació de CA com compatibilitzador d'aquestes mescles va augmentar la solubilitat en aigüa dels films per efecte d'hidròlisi i va suposar una millora en les propietats mecàniques dels films amb baixa proporció de PCL (10 %), però no va afectar les propietats barrera. La incorporació de polietilenglicol (PEG 4000) a les mescles amb baixa proporció de PCL no va millorar les propietats dels films, potenciant la separació de fases. Les mescles midó:PCL amb proporció màssica 1:0.05, sense compatibilitzador, varen ser prou homogènies i varen exhibir un bon comportament mecànic i una bona estabilitat. Per a incorporar una major proporció de PCL i millorar l'hidrofobicitat i estabilitat dels films, es va modificar la PCL per reacció amb glicidil metacrilat o anhídrid maleic i glicidil metacrilat (PCL-g), per al seu ús com compatibilitzadors. Els films amb 20% de PCL i 2.5 i 5 % dels PCL-g varen presentar molt bones propietats mecàniques i de barrera al vapor d'aigüa i als gasos i bona estabilitat al inhibir la retrogradació del midó. Les seues propietats de barrera varen complir amb els requisits d'envasament d'un nombre important de productes alimentaris. L'obtenció de films bicapa per termo-compressió a partir de midó (o midó amb 5% PCL) i PCL va proporcionar un material amb molt baixa permeabilitat al vapor d'aigüa i al oxigen i bones propietats mecàniques. L'adhesió entre les capes va millorar en gran mesura amb l'incorporació d'àcid ascòrbic, i sobretot de sorbat de potassi, en la interfase en forma de dissolució aquosa abans de la termocompressió. Aquestos compostos varen impartir, a la vegada, propietats antioxidants i antimicrobianes, respec / Ortega Toro, R. (2015). DESARROLLO Y CARACTERIZACION DE PELÍCULAS DE ALMIDÓN DE MAÍZ POR MEZCLADO CON COMPUESTOS MÁS HIDROFÓBICOS [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/52521 / TESIS

L’Hydroxypropyle méthylcellulose (HPMC) constitue un des polymères les plus utilisés pour la production de films destinés aux applications pharmaceutiques (gélules, comprimés, etc.). Afin de contrôler les propriétés physico-chimiques de films HPMC, des additifs sont fréquemment incorporés pendant la formulation du film: ce sont dans la plupart des cas un lubrifiant hydrophobe (acides gras) ou un plastifiant hydrophile (le polyéthylène glycol). L’objectif principal de ce travail est d’étudier les propriétés physico-chimiques en volume et en surface des films HPMC formulés aux échelles nanoscopique et macroscopique. Les propriétés volumiques concernent l’isotherme de sorption de l’eau, le taux de transmission de la vapeur d’eau, les propriétés thermiques et mécaniques des films. Les caractéristiques de surface ont été exploitées en termes de structuration, morphologie, séparation de phase, énergie de surface, adhésion et friction de films HPMC formulés. A l’échelle nanoscopique, la microscopie à force atomique en mode contact et en mode friction est un outil puissant pour étudier la nanoadhésion et la nanofriction. A l’échelle macroscopique, le test de tack et le tribomètre ont permis d’accéder aux propriétés d’adhésion et tribologiques. La présente étude souligne que les propriétés de films HPMC dépendent fortement de la nature et de la concentration de l’additif, et/ou de l’affinité avec l’eau. Elle montre aussi que la compatibilité HPMC-additif semble un facteur intéressant pour la variation des propriétés de surface de films HPMC formulés, et que la formulation est un moyen efficace pour contrôler les propriétés physico-chimiques de films à base de biopolymères. / Hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) constitutes one of the most dedicated polymers used in the production of film coatings for pharmaceutical applications (capsules, tablets, etc.). In order to control the physicochemical properties of HPMC films, additives are frequently incorporated during film formulation: these are in most cases hydrophobic lubricant (like fatty acids) or hydrophilic plasticizer (like polyethylene glycol). The main objective of this work is to study the bulk and the surface physicochemical properties of HPMC formulated films at nanoscopic and macroscopic scales. Bulk properties include moisture sorption isotherms, barrier properties, thermal and mechanical properties. The surface characteristics have been explored in terms of structuration, surface morphologies, surface phase separation, surface energy, adhesion, and friction properties of HPMC-formulated films. At nanoscale, atomic force microscopy in contact mode and in friction mode is a powerful tool for studying nanoadhesion and nanofriction. At macroscale, tack test and pin-on-disk tribometer were conducted to access adhesion and tribological properties. The present study underlines the strong dependence of film properties on additive nature, concentration, and/or water sensitivity. It also shows that first the HPMC-additive compatibility seems to be an interesting factor behind the variation of surface properties of HPMC-formulated films, and second that formulation is an effective way to tune physicochemical properties of biopolymer-based films.

Twin screw wet granulation has been proved as a feasible alternative for traditional batch granulation process due to its continuous processing feature; considered as a significant processing method especially in the pharmaceutical industry. This thesis will explore the processibility of twin screw wet granulation with various formulations. The first section of the thesis focused on examining the processibility of wet granulation in a twin screw while using various grades of hydroxypropyl methylcellulose (HPMC) as an extended-release excipient. The method to find the processibility was by modifying the liquid-to-solid ratio for each formulation. The process window was defined by examining the amount of granules that fall in a pre-determined acceptable size range. This part focused on three substitution types of HPMC (Type 2910, Type 2208, and Type 2906) that varied in molecular weights. It was found that only Type 2910 HPMC showed a shift in the process window (also known as granulation range) in relation to the molecular weight of the formulations. A higher demand for binder liquid was found for higher molecular weight Type 2910 HPMC in order to form granules with acceptable sizes. The second part of this thesis was focused on understanding the process variables that might influence the processibility of the HPMC formulations. This part examined the impact of feed rate on the granulation range of Type 2910 HPMC specifically was examined. Multiple feed rates were tested, and it was found that the granulation range for lower molecular weight Type 2910 HPMC was easier to shrink when higher feed rates were applied. A transition in the granule formation method from liquid-bridging to compaction with respect to the feed rate was found for low molecular weight HPMC, whereas the high molecular weight HPMC always formed granules through compaction at all feed rates due to strong water retainability. / Thesis / Master of Applied Science (MASc)

Polymer-based drug delivery systems represent one of the promising strategies for successful tumor treatment. Conjugation of a low-molecular-weight drug to a syn- thetic polymer carrier enables targeted drug delivery to tumor tissue/cells and limited systemic toxicity of the drug. The conjugates show extended circulation time, and preferentially accumulate in tumor tissue due to the Enhanced Permeability and Re- tention (EPR) effect. The EPR effect depends on a structural anomaly in tumor neovasculature, and vasodilators were shown to enhance the EPR effect via an in- crease of blood supply in the tumor. Polymer drug carriers based on water-soluble N-(2-hydroxypropyl)methacrylamide (HPMA) benefit from variable architecture, drug loading and controlled release. HPMA-based conjugates with cancerostatics have al- ready proved high anti-tumor activity, inducing complete tumor regression followed by resistance to a second tumor challenge in experimental murine models. Three HPMA-based conjugates with organic nitrates (labeled 1, 2, and 3) were pre- pared as polymer donors of nitric oxide (NO) with the aim to intensify the EPR effect, thereby enhancing accumulation of co-administered macromolecular cancerostatics in the tumor. In this study, the conjugates were non-toxic to cancer cells and did not potentiate...

In dieser Arbeit wurden die beiden Membranen Schweinekornea und Rindernasenmukosa hinsichtlich ihrer Permeabilität für den lipophilen Arzneistoff Androstendion (AD), der sowohl zur ophthalmologischen Anwendung als auch für die nasale Applikation mit systemischer Wirkung von Interesse ist, verglichen. Zusätzlich wurden identische Versuche mit der synthetischen Membran, Nephrophan(r), durchgeführt. Neben der gepufferten Arzneistofflösung, für die aufgrund des differenzierten Membranaufbaus Permeationskoeffizienten (Peff) für AD im Verhältnis von 3:1:4 (Mukosa : Kornea : Nephrophan(r)) resultierten, standen zwei entwickelte wasserkontinuierliche, nicht-ionische Mikroemulsionen (ME) und ihre Einzelkomponenten als Trägerformulierungen bei den Permeationsstudien im Vordergrund. Darüber hinaus wurde ein ME-System mit einem kationischen Kotensid entwickelt, charakterisiert und in die Untersuchungen einbezogen. Die getesteten Trägerformulierungen führten an den einzelnen Membranen zu unterschiedlichen Ergebnissen. Um auch den "hydrophilen Permeationsweg" einzuschließen, wurde parallel Fluorescein-Na (FSC) als hydrophile Modellsubstanz getestet. Als mögliche Ursache für diese differenzierten Ergebnisse wurde ein Einfluss der Additiva und Formulierungen auf das Verteilungsverhalten des lipophilen AD zwischen Donatorlösung und Membran in Betracht gezogen und daher in einem weiteren Versuchsblock die Penetrationsrate untersucht. Darüber hinaus wurde parallel dazu der metabolische Abbau, den AD während des Membrandurchtritts durch die vorhandenen Enzyme erfahren kann, berücksichtigt. Die Resultate zeigten Übereinstimmung mit den Permeationsergebnissen indem die Additiva und Formulierungen die Penetration in das Gewebe und den Metabolismus mehr oder weniger herabsetzten. Zur Charakterisierung der systemischen Verfügbarkeit von AD nach nasaler Applikation wurden im Anschluss an die Permeations- und Penetrationsversuche In-vivo-Studien an Kaninchen durchgeführt, die hier allerdings lediglich mit orientierendem Charakter einbezogen werden konnten. Um schließlich die Verhältnisse am Auge bzw. den mehrschichtigen Tränenfilm hinsichtlich einer Applikation der ME-Systeme modellhaft zu simulieren, wurden biophysikalische Untersuchungen in einem Langmuir-Trog mit Meibom''schen Drüsensekret als Oberflächenfilm durchgeführt, die über mögliche Interaktionen der Formulierungen bzw. ihrer Bestandteile mit der Tränenlipidschicht des Auges Auskunft geben sollten. Hier zeigten sich günstige Einflüsse der ME auf die Tränenlipidschicht, die vor allem bei einer Anwendung der ME bei Trockenem Auge von Vorteil sein können. / In these studies in vitro permeability of porcine cornea and bovine nasal mucosa was investigated and compared to each other using the lipophilic drug androstenedione (AD), which is of interest for ocular use as well as nasal, systemical administration. Additionally, the artificial membrane, Nephrophan(r), was used for identical investigations. Because of the differentiated membrane structure AD-permeation behaviour out of buffer solution resulted in a ratio of permeability coefficients (Peff) of 3:1:4 (nasal mucosa : cornea : Nephrophan(r)). Furthermore, two water-continuous, non-ionic microemulsions (ME) and their isolated components were investigated as carrier formulations. Additionally, a new ME containing a cationic co-surfactant was developed, characterized and included in the permeability studies as well. Permeation out of these carrier formulations also resulted in different Peff in case of all tissues. For including studies of the hydrophilic transport way flourescein-sodium (FSC) was investigated as well representing a hydrophilic model substance. Influence of the additives and formulations on the partition behaviour of AD between membrane and donor solution was considered to partially cause these results. Therefore, penetration of AD was investigated together with the metabolic conversion of AD caused by enzymes located in the biological membranes. The additives and formulations decreased penetration into the tissue as well as metabolism of the drug. These findings corresponded with and could therefore explain the results of the permeability studies to some extend. For characterizing systemical availability of AD after nasal administration and improving the results of the permeability and penetration investigations in vivo studies using rabbits were carried out. However, these studies could give but marginal information and therefore be incorporated for orientation only. Furthermore, biophysical investigations were carried out using a Langmuir trough with Meibomian gland secrete (MGS) as the surface layer in order to simulate the multiple layer tear film. These studies were supposed to give some information about interactions between the ME or their isolated components, respectively, and the lipid layer of the tear film, regarding ocular administration of these formulations. The results showed suitable influence of the ME on the MGS, which can especially be advantageous for a use in Dry eye syndrome.