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abstract: Hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) affect up to 5%-15% of pregnancies around the globe, and form a leading cause of maternal and neonatal morbidity and mortality. HDP are progressive disorders for which the only cure is to deliver the baby. An increasing trend in the prevalence of HDP has been observed in the recent years. This trend is anticipated to continue due to the rise in the prevalence of diseases that strongly influence hypertension such as obesity and metabolic syndrome. In order to lessen the adverse outcomes due to HDP, we need to study (1) the natural progression of HDP, (2) the risks of adverse outcomes associated with these disorders, and (3) the optimal timing of delivery for women with HDP. In the first study, the natural progression of HDP in the third trimester of pregnancy is modeled with a discrete-time Markov chain (DTMC). The transition probabilities of the DTMC are estimated using clinical data with an order restricted inference model that maximizes the likelihood function subject to a set of order restrictions between the transition probabilities. The results provide useful insights on the progression of HDP, and the estimated transition probabilities are used to parametrize the decision models in the third study. In the second study, the risks of maternal and neonatal adverse outcomes for women with HDP are quantified with a composite measure of childbirth morbidity, and the estimated risks are compared with respect to type of HDP at delivery, gestational age at delivery, and type of delivery in a retrospective cohort study. Furthermore, the safety of child delivery with respect to the same variables is assessed with a provider survey and technique for order performance by similarity to ideal solution (TOPSIS). The methods and results of this study are used to parametrize the decision models in the third study. In the third study, the decision problem of timing of delivery for women with HDP is formulated as a discrete-time Markov decision process (MDP) model that minimizes the risks of maternal and neonatal adverse outcomes. We additionally formulate a robust MDP model that gives the worst-case optimal policy when transition probabilities are allowed to vary within their confidence intervals. The results of the decision models are assessed within a probabilistic sensitivity analysis (PSA) that considers the uncertainty in the estimated risk values. In our PSA, the performance of candidate delivery policies is evaluated using a large number of problem instances that are constructed according to the orders between model parameters to incorporate physicians' intuition. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Industrial Engineering 2018

Präeklampsie ist weltweit eine der Hauptursachen perinataler Morbidität und Mortalität für Mutter und Kind. Es wird vermutet, dass unterschiedliche pathophysiologische Mechanismen je nach Zeitpunkt des Auftretens der Präeklampsie vorliegen. Eine Unterscheidung zwischen früher, mittlerer und später Präeklampsie scheint relevant für Screening, klinische Manifestation und Management der Erkrankung zu sein. Ziel dieser Studie ist es die drei Typen der Präeklampsie bezüglich Risikofaktoren, Entbindungsmodalität und maternaler und neonataler Morbiditäten und Mortalitäten zu charakterisieren und zusätzlich mit denen der Gestationshypertonie und chronischen Hypertonie zu vergleichen. In einem retrospektiven Studienaufbau wurden 1089 Einlingsschwangerschaften mit hypertensiver Schwangerschaftserkrankung, deren Entbindung in einem Zeitraum von 10 Jahren (2003-2012) erfolgte, analysiert. Die maternalen und neonatalen Charakteristika der verschiedenen Gruppen hypertensiver Schwangerschaftserkrankungen wurden miteinander verglichen. Es wurden deskriptive und analytische (Chi-quadrat-Test und U-Test) statistische Methoden verwendet. Es zeigten sich signifikant unterschiedliche maternale Komorbiditäten und Risikofaktoren in den untersuchten Gruppen hypertensiver Schwangerschaftserkrankungen. Für die Mehrzahl der untersuchten Parameter waren Fälle mit Präeklampsie häufiger durch Morbidität und Mortalität betroffen waren. Patientinnen mit früher Präeklampsie fielen durch einen signifikant höheren mittleren arteriellen Druck vor Entbindung, eine erhöhte Kaiserschnittrate, eine ausgeprägtere Proteinurie und eine häufigere Korrelation zu HELLP-Syndrom, Eklampsie und vorzeitige Plazentalösung auf. Die Häufigkeit pathologischer Doppleruntersuchungen in den Arteriae uterinae und der Arteria umbilicalis verhielt sich umgekehrt proportional zur Schwangerschaftswoche zum Zeitpunkt der Entbindung. Ein nachteiliges fetales Outcome bezogen auf die perinatale und neonatale Mortalität, Beatmung über einen längeren Zeitraum als 24 Stunden, RDS-Syndrom, fetale Wachstumsrestriktion und Verlegung auf eine neonatologische Intensivstation trat unter früher Präeklampsie häufiger als unter mittlerer und bei mittlerer häufiger als unter später Präeklampsie auf. Das neonatale Outcome von Feten unter der 33. SSW war nicht vom Ausmaß der mütterlichen hypertensiven Erkrankung abhängig. Die späte Präeklampsie viel durch günstigere Outcomes als die Gestationshypertonie und chronische Hypertonie auf. Die Ergebnisse der Studie unterstützen die These, dass unterschiedliche pathophysiologische Mechanismen Präeklampsie bedingen können und dass frühe, mittlere und späte Präeklampsie entweder verschiedene Erkrankungen sind, oder die Präeklampsie eine Erkrankung darstellt, die durch verschiedene Einflussfaktoren ein unterschiedlich starkes Ausmaß annimmt. Das Gestationsalter ist demnach das entscheidende Kriterium für die klinische Ausprägung. Die unterschiedlichen Risikoprofile der einzelnen Formen hypertensiver Schwangerschaftserkrankungen fordern ein angepasstes klinisches Management.

The aim of this thesis was to investigate the effect of antihypertensive therapy on vascular function and placental markers in hypertensive disorders in pregnancy (HTD). We prospectively studied 208 women at the Homerton and University College London Hospitals. Vascular and serum markers were measured in 80 with HTD [51 pre-eclampsia (PE), 29 gestational hypertension (GH)] and 80 normotensive controls. The same markers were measured in placental samples from another 48 women (14 PE, 10 GH, 24 controls). Pulse wave analysis indices [augmentation pressure (AP) and augmentation index at heart rate 75/minute (Aix-75)], serum and placental concentrations of soluble fms-like tyrosine-kinase-1 (sFlt-1), soluble endoglin (sEng), placental growth factor (PIGF), vascular endothelial growth factor (VEGF), inhibin A, activin A, and uterine artery Doppler were measured before, and 24-48 hours after, initiating antihypertensive therapy. The three study groups were compared using ANOVA multiple comparisons with Bonferroni post hoc testing. Marker levels before and after antihypertensives were compared using paired t-test. In both pre-eclampsia (P < 0.0001) and gestational hypertension (P < 0.05), serum sFlt-1 was increased and PIGF reduced (P < 0.001) compared to controls. Serum sEng levels were also increased in pre-eclampsia. Placental sFlt-1 and sEng were significantly higher (P < 0.0001), and PIGF lower (P = 0.008), in pre-eclampsia compared to controls and gestational hypertension. Antihypertensive therapy was associated with a significant fall in serum and placental sFlt-1 and sEng in pre-eclampsia only (P < 0.05). In pre-eclampsia, but not gestational hypertension, treatment was associated with significantly (P < 0.05) lower serum and placental inhibin A and activin A. In women with pre-eclampsia or gestational hypertension, both AP (P < 0.0001 and P < 0.05) and Aix-75 (P < 0.0001 and P < 0.001) were significantly higher than controls. Antihypertensive therapy resulted in a significant fall in both AP and Aix-75 in pre-eclampsia only (P < 0.0001). Anti hypertensive drugs may have an effect on the pathophysiology of pre-eclampsia other than their known anti hypertensive action.

Introdução: As doenças hipertensivas da gestação (DHG) são a principal causa de morte materna em todo o mundo. A pré-eclâmpsia ocorre em 3-5% das gestações, acrescentando maior morbimortalidade. Apesar da importância em saúde pública dessa patologia, sua patogênese não está totalmente esclarecida. Acredita-se que uma disfunção na placentação ocasione um estado de estresse oxidativo, contribuindo para manifestação clínica da doença. O selênio é um antioxidante presente no organismo cujas concentrações séricas tendem a diminuir na gestação normal, e a sua deficiência vem sendo relacionada às DHG. Entretanto, estudos prévios mostram resultados conflitantes. O objetivo deste estudo é correlacionar os níveis séricos de selênio com DHG na nossa população, considerando um possível fator de proteção deste mineral. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo caso-controle, incluindo 32 gestantes normotensas, 20 hipertensas (hipertensão crônica e gestacional) e 38 pacientes com pré-eclâmpsia. Todas pacientes foram oriundas do pré-natal ou admissão obstétrica do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre. O selênio sérico foi dosado no momento da inclusão do estudo. As pacientes foram acompanhadas até o momento da alta após o parto. O nível de significância adotado foi de 5% (p≤0,05) e as análises foram realizadas no programa SPSS versão 18. Resultados: As pacientes não diferiram quanto à idade materna, etnicidade, anos de estudo, paridade e prevalência de tabagismo. Pacientes normotensas apresentaram menor índice de massa corporal e foram incluídas no estudo mais precocemente. Além disso, estas pacientes apresentaram maior prevalência de outras comorbidades, excluindo hipertensão. Pacientes com pré-eclâmpsia tiveram níveis de pressão arterial sistólica mais altos no momento da admissão. Uso contínuo de medicações e história de DHG em gestações anteriores foi mais comum no grupo de pacientes com pré-eclâmpsia. Os níveis séricos de selênio não apresentaram diferença significativa entre os grupos, sendo uma média de 56,4±15,3μg/L no grupo controle, 53,2±15,2μg/L no grupo hipertensão e 53,3±16,8μg/L no grupo com pré-eclâmpsia (P=0,67). Das pacientes com préeclâmpsia, 52,6% apresentaram pré-eclâmpsia grave. Os níveis séricos de selênio destas pacientes também não diferiram significativamente do grupo controle (P=0,77). Pré-eclâmpsia foi associada a interrupção mais precoce da gestação e menor peso de nascimento (P<0,05), entretanto não houve diferença significativa entre os outros desfechos estudados. Conclusão: Não houve diferença significativa na concentração de selênio sérico entre gestantes normotensas e gestantes com doenças hipertensivas da gestação, não sendo possível estabelecer um fator de proteção. / Introduction: The hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) are the leading cause of maternal death in the world. Preeclampsia occurs in 3-5% of pregnancies, adding greater morbidity and mortality. Despite the importance of this disease in public health, its pathogenesis is not fully understood. It is believed that a dysfunction in the placentation process leads to oxidative stress, contributing to the clinical manifestation of the disease. Selenium is an antioxidant present in the body, which serum concentrations tend to decrease in normal pregnancy. Its deficiency has been related to HDP. However, previous studies have shown conflicting results. The aim of this study is to correlate serum selenium levels with HDP in our population, considering a possible protective factor of this mineral. Methods: We conducted a case-control study, including 32 normotensive pregnant women, 20 with hypertension (chronic and gestational hypertension) and 38 patients with preeclampsia. All patients were derived from antenatal or obstetric admission of Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre. Serum selenium was measured at the time of inclusion in the study. Patients were followed until hospital discharge after delivery. The significance level was 5% (p≤0.05) and analyzes were performed using SPSS version 18. Results: The patients did not differ with regard to maternal age, ethnicity, years of education, parity, and smoking prevalence. Normotensive patients had lower body mass index and were included in the study earlier. In addition, these patients had a higher prevalence of other comorbidities excluding hypertension. Patients with preeclampsia had higher levels of systolic blood pressure on admission. Continuous use of medication and HDP history in previous pregnancies were more common in patients with preeclampsia. Serum selenium levels were not significantly different between groups, with an average of 56.4 ± 15,3 μg/L in the control group, 53.2 ± 15,2 μg/L in the hypertension group and 53.3 ± 16,8 μg/L in the group with preeclampsia (P=0.67). Of patients with preeclampsia, 52.6% had severe preeclampsia. Serum selenium levels of these patients did not differ significantly from the control group (P=0.77). Preeclampsia was associated with earlier interruption of pregnancy and lower birth weight (P<0.05). There was no significant difference between other outcomes studied. Conclusion: There was no significant difference in the concentration of serum selenium between normotensive pregnant women and pregnant women with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, thus not being possible to establish selenium as a protective factor.

Introdução: As doenças hipertensivas da gestação (DHG) são a principal causa de morte materna em todo o mundo. A pré-eclâmpsia ocorre em 3-5% das gestações, acrescentando maior morbimortalidade. Apesar da importância em saúde pública dessa patologia, sua patogênese não está totalmente esclarecida. Acredita-se que uma disfunção na placentação ocasione um estado de estresse oxidativo, contribuindo para manifestação clínica da doença. O selênio é um antioxidante presente no organismo cujas concentrações séricas tendem a diminuir na gestação normal, e a sua deficiência vem sendo relacionada às DHG. Entretanto, estudos prévios mostram resultados conflitantes. O objetivo deste estudo é correlacionar os níveis séricos de selênio com DHG na nossa população, considerando um possível fator de proteção deste mineral. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo caso-controle, incluindo 32 gestantes normotensas, 20 hipertensas (hipertensão crônica e gestacional) e 38 pacientes com pré-eclâmpsia. Todas pacientes foram oriundas do pré-natal ou admissão obstétrica do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre. O selênio sérico foi dosado no momento da inclusão do estudo. As pacientes foram acompanhadas até o momento da alta após o parto. O nível de significância adotado foi de 5% (p≤0,05) e as análises foram realizadas no programa SPSS versão 18. Resultados: As pacientes não diferiram quanto à idade materna, etnicidade, anos de estudo, paridade e prevalência de tabagismo. Pacientes normotensas apresentaram menor índice de massa corporal e foram incluídas no estudo mais precocemente. Além disso, estas pacientes apresentaram maior prevalência de outras comorbidades, excluindo hipertensão. Pacientes com pré-eclâmpsia tiveram níveis de pressão arterial sistólica mais altos no momento da admissão. Uso contínuo de medicações e história de DHG em gestações anteriores foi mais comum no grupo de pacientes com pré-eclâmpsia. Os níveis séricos de selênio não apresentaram diferença significativa entre os grupos, sendo uma média de 56,4±15,3μg/L no grupo controle, 53,2±15,2μg/L no grupo hipertensão e 53,3±16,8μg/L no grupo com pré-eclâmpsia (P=0,67). Das pacientes com préeclâmpsia, 52,6% apresentaram pré-eclâmpsia grave. Os níveis séricos de selênio destas pacientes também não diferiram significativamente do grupo controle (P=0,77). Pré-eclâmpsia foi associada a interrupção mais precoce da gestação e menor peso de nascimento (P<0,05), entretanto não houve diferença significativa entre os outros desfechos estudados. Conclusão: Não houve diferença significativa na concentração de selênio sérico entre gestantes normotensas e gestantes com doenças hipertensivas da gestação, não sendo possível estabelecer um fator de proteção. / Introduction: The hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) are the leading cause of maternal death in the world. Preeclampsia occurs in 3-5% of pregnancies, adding greater morbidity and mortality. Despite the importance of this disease in public health, its pathogenesis is not fully understood. It is believed that a dysfunction in the placentation process leads to oxidative stress, contributing to the clinical manifestation of the disease. Selenium is an antioxidant present in the body, which serum concentrations tend to decrease in normal pregnancy. Its deficiency has been related to HDP. However, previous studies have shown conflicting results. The aim of this study is to correlate serum selenium levels with HDP in our population, considering a possible protective factor of this mineral. Methods: We conducted a case-control study, including 32 normotensive pregnant women, 20 with hypertension (chronic and gestational hypertension) and 38 patients with preeclampsia. All patients were derived from antenatal or obstetric admission of Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre. Serum selenium was measured at the time of inclusion in the study. Patients were followed until hospital discharge after delivery. The significance level was 5% (p≤0.05) and analyzes were performed using SPSS version 18. Results: The patients did not differ with regard to maternal age, ethnicity, years of education, parity, and smoking prevalence. Normotensive patients had lower body mass index and were included in the study earlier. In addition, these patients had a higher prevalence of other comorbidities excluding hypertension. Patients with preeclampsia had higher levels of systolic blood pressure on admission. Continuous use of medication and HDP history in previous pregnancies were more common in patients with preeclampsia. Serum selenium levels were not significantly different between groups, with an average of 56.4 ± 15,3 μg/L in the control group, 53.2 ± 15,2 μg/L in the hypertension group and 53.3 ± 16,8 μg/L in the group with preeclampsia (P=0.67). Of patients with preeclampsia, 52.6% had severe preeclampsia. Serum selenium levels of these patients did not differ significantly from the control group (P=0.77). Preeclampsia was associated with earlier interruption of pregnancy and lower birth weight (P<0.05). There was no significant difference between other outcomes studied. Conclusion: There was no significant difference in the concentration of serum selenium between normotensive pregnant women and pregnant women with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, thus not being possible to establish selenium as a protective factor.

Introdução: As doenças hipertensivas da gestação (DHG) são a principal causa de morte materna em todo o mundo. A pré-eclâmpsia ocorre em 3-5% das gestações, acrescentando maior morbimortalidade. Apesar da importância em saúde pública dessa patologia, sua patogênese não está totalmente esclarecida. Acredita-se que uma disfunção na placentação ocasione um estado de estresse oxidativo, contribuindo para manifestação clínica da doença. O selênio é um antioxidante presente no organismo cujas concentrações séricas tendem a diminuir na gestação normal, e a sua deficiência vem sendo relacionada às DHG. Entretanto, estudos prévios mostram resultados conflitantes. O objetivo deste estudo é correlacionar os níveis séricos de selênio com DHG na nossa população, considerando um possível fator de proteção deste mineral. Métodos: Foi realizado um estudo caso-controle, incluindo 32 gestantes normotensas, 20 hipertensas (hipertensão crônica e gestacional) e 38 pacientes com pré-eclâmpsia. Todas pacientes foram oriundas do pré-natal ou admissão obstétrica do Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre. O selênio sérico foi dosado no momento da inclusão do estudo. As pacientes foram acompanhadas até o momento da alta após o parto. O nível de significância adotado foi de 5% (p≤0,05) e as análises foram realizadas no programa SPSS versão 18. Resultados: As pacientes não diferiram quanto à idade materna, etnicidade, anos de estudo, paridade e prevalência de tabagismo. Pacientes normotensas apresentaram menor índice de massa corporal e foram incluídas no estudo mais precocemente. Além disso, estas pacientes apresentaram maior prevalência de outras comorbidades, excluindo hipertensão. Pacientes com pré-eclâmpsia tiveram níveis de pressão arterial sistólica mais altos no momento da admissão. Uso contínuo de medicações e história de DHG em gestações anteriores foi mais comum no grupo de pacientes com pré-eclâmpsia. Os níveis séricos de selênio não apresentaram diferença significativa entre os grupos, sendo uma média de 56,4±15,3μg/L no grupo controle, 53,2±15,2μg/L no grupo hipertensão e 53,3±16,8μg/L no grupo com pré-eclâmpsia (P=0,67). Das pacientes com préeclâmpsia, 52,6% apresentaram pré-eclâmpsia grave. Os níveis séricos de selênio destas pacientes também não diferiram significativamente do grupo controle (P=0,77). Pré-eclâmpsia foi associada a interrupção mais precoce da gestação e menor peso de nascimento (P<0,05), entretanto não houve diferença significativa entre os outros desfechos estudados. Conclusão: Não houve diferença significativa na concentração de selênio sérico entre gestantes normotensas e gestantes com doenças hipertensivas da gestação, não sendo possível estabelecer um fator de proteção. / Introduction: The hypertensive disorders of pregnancy (HDP) are the leading cause of maternal death in the world. Preeclampsia occurs in 3-5% of pregnancies, adding greater morbidity and mortality. Despite the importance of this disease in public health, its pathogenesis is not fully understood. It is believed that a dysfunction in the placentation process leads to oxidative stress, contributing to the clinical manifestation of the disease. Selenium is an antioxidant present in the body, which serum concentrations tend to decrease in normal pregnancy. Its deficiency has been related to HDP. However, previous studies have shown conflicting results. The aim of this study is to correlate serum selenium levels with HDP in our population, considering a possible protective factor of this mineral. Methods: We conducted a case-control study, including 32 normotensive pregnant women, 20 with hypertension (chronic and gestational hypertension) and 38 patients with preeclampsia. All patients were derived from antenatal or obstetric admission of Hospital de Clínicas de Porto Alegre. Serum selenium was measured at the time of inclusion in the study. Patients were followed until hospital discharge after delivery. The significance level was 5% (p≤0.05) and analyzes were performed using SPSS version 18. Results: The patients did not differ with regard to maternal age, ethnicity, years of education, parity, and smoking prevalence. Normotensive patients had lower body mass index and were included in the study earlier. In addition, these patients had a higher prevalence of other comorbidities excluding hypertension. Patients with preeclampsia had higher levels of systolic blood pressure on admission. Continuous use of medication and HDP history in previous pregnancies were more common in patients with preeclampsia. Serum selenium levels were not significantly different between groups, with an average of 56.4 ± 15,3 μg/L in the control group, 53.2 ± 15,2 μg/L in the hypertension group and 53.3 ± 16,8 μg/L in the group with preeclampsia (P=0.67). Of patients with preeclampsia, 52.6% had severe preeclampsia. Serum selenium levels of these patients did not differ significantly from the control group (P=0.77). Preeclampsia was associated with earlier interruption of pregnancy and lower birth weight (P<0.05). There was no significant difference between other outcomes studied. Conclusion: There was no significant difference in the concentration of serum selenium between normotensive pregnant women and pregnant women with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, thus not being possible to establish selenium as a protective factor.

Background In South Africa, hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are the leading cause of maternal mortality. More than 50% of anaesthesia-related deaths are attributed to complications of airway management. We compared the prevalence and risk factors for hypoxaemia (SpO2<90%) during induction of general anaesthesia in parturients with and without hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. We hypothesised that hypertensive disorders of pregnancy are associated with desaturation during tracheal intubation. Methods Data from 402 cases in a multicentre obstetric airway management registry were analysed. The prevalence of peri-induction hypoxaemia (SpO2<90%) was compared in patients with and without hypertensive disorders of pregnancy. Quantile regression of SpO2 nadir was performed to identify confounding variables associated with, and mediators of hypoxaemia.Results In the cohort of 402 cases, hypoxaemia occurred in 19% with and 9% without hypertension (estimated risk difference, 10%; 95% CI 2% to 17%; P=0.005). Quantile regression demonstrated a lower SpO2 nadir associated with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy as body mass index increased. Room-air oxygen saturation, Mallampati grade, and number of intubation attempts were associated with the relationship. Conclusions Clinically significant oxygen desaturation during airway management occurred twice as often in patients with hypertensive disorders of pregnancy, compounded by increasing body mass index. Intermediary factors in the pathway from hypertension to hypoxaemia were also identified.

Infant mortality (IM) rates in the United States remains high. The higher rates of IM among specific groups in the United States is believed to be fueled by the high rates of adverse birth outcomes including low birthweight (LBW) and preterm births (PTB) among these groups. Adverse birth outcomes have also been linked to the presence of hypertensive disorders during pregnancy. The purpose of this cross-sectional study was to explore the association between hypertensive disorders during pregnancy and adverse birth outcomes and the impact of the residential neighborhood of expectant mothers on this association. The life course health development theory guided the framework for this study. Study data were obtained from the 2010 New York City birth records and the 2010 US Census. Descriptive statistics and logistic regression analysis were used to address the 3 research hypotheses of the study. The study found that prepregnancy hypertension (HTN) (AOR: 2.84 & 3.25), gestational HTN (AOR: 2.28 & 3.33) and eclampsia (AOR: 4.41 & 6.70) were significantly associated with PTB and LBW respectively. Neighborhood segregation was not significant for PTB (AOR: 1.01) or LBW (AOR: 1.03). Neighborhood poverty was significant for PTB (AOR: 0.86) but not for LBW (AOR: 1.05). Neighborhood segregation and poverty had significant moderating effects on the prepregnancy HTN (p = 0.00), gestational HTN (p = 0.00), eclampsia (p = 0.00) and PTB and LBW association. Results from this study can help to address disparities in birth outcomes among women of differing races and ethnicities and thereby contribute to positive social change.