abstract: Dysregulated cortisol has been linked to a variety of adverse physical and psychological consequences. Stressors in the childhood family environment can influence cortisol activity throughout development. For example, research has shown that both infants and children of depressed mothers exhibit altered levels of cortisol compared to infants and children of non-depressed mothers. It is unclear, however, whether exposure to maternal depression in childhood and adolescence is related to cortisol activity at later stages of development. The current study examined the longitudinal relation between maternal depressive symptoms during late childhood (9-12 years old) and adolescence (15-19 years old) and cortisol activity in offspring in young adulthood (24- 28 years old) in a sample of 40 young adults and their mothers. Maternal depressive symptoms were prospectively assessed at four time points across the 15 year study. Cortisol samples were collected from young adult offspring at the final time point. Findings revealed that higher levels of maternal depressive symptoms during late childhood were associated with lower total cortisol output in young adulthood. Results suggest that attenuated cortisol levels, which put these young adults at risk for a variety of stress-related physical and psychological illnesses, may be a long-term consequence of exposure to maternal depression,. Depressive symptoms in mothers during their child's adolescence, however, did not relate to cortisol output. These findings suggest a sensitive period in late childhood during which the development of HPA activity may be susceptible to the environmental stressor of maternal depression. / Dissertation/Thesis / M.A. Psychology 2011

La réduction du temps de sommeil est un phénomène de plus en plus courant. Un faisceau de données expérimentales et épidémiologiques suggère qu'un manque de sommeil pourrait être un facteur de risque d'obésité et de diabète. Dans un premier temps, puisque des modifications de l'axe Hypothalamo-Hypophyso-Surrénalien (HHS) pourraient sous- tendre la relation entre le manque de sommeil et les maladies métaboliques, j'ai évalué les effets de 2 nuits courtes sur ce système chez des jeunes hommes en bonne santé. Nous avons montré que 2 nuits de 4h au lit altéraient l'activité spontanée et la réactivité de l'axe HHS et que l'ampleur des altérations était corrélée à l'importance de la privation de sommeil. Dans un deuxième temps, j'ai tenté de déterminer si une extension de sommeil pouvait avoir des effets bénéfiques chez des jeunes obèses dormant habituellement peu. Nos résultats préliminaires montrent que par simple extension du temps passé au lit, des obèses dormant habituellement 6h, étaient capables de dormir 8h, une durée associée au plus faible risque d'obésité dans les études épidémiologiques, que leur appétit pour les aliments gras et salés et le grignotage diminuaient, que leurs taux de polypeptide pancréatique, une hormone anorexigène, étaient augmentés, et que leur prise calorique lors d'un buffet à volonté était d'autant plus diminuée que leur temps de sommeil était augmenté. Ce travail souligne l'importance d'une durée de sommeil suffisante pour une bonne santé métabolique et suggère que l'optimisation du sommeil pourrait constituer une alternative peu coûteuse pour la prévention et la prise en charge des maladies métaboliques / Voluntary sleep restriction is increasingly common in modern socities. Evidence from epidemiological and experimental studies suggest that sleep loss may be a risk factor for obesity and type 2 diabetes. First, since the modifications in Hypothalamic-Pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis activity may underlie the relationship between sleep loss and metabolic diseases, 1 evaluated the effect of 2 short nights on this system in healthy lean young men. We showed that 2 nights of 4h in bed impaired spontaneous activity and the reactivity of the HPA axis and that the magnitude of these alterations was related of the severity of sleep loss. 1n a second step, 1 sought to determine if sleep extension could have a beneficial effect in young obese short sleepers. Our preliminary results showed that, by a simple bedtime extension, obese subjects usually sleeping 6h were able to sleep 8h, a duration associated with the lowest risk obesity risk in epidemiological studies. Moreover, their appetite for sweets and fat food, and snacking were decreased, the levels of pancreatic polypeptide, an anorexigenic hormone, were increased and the more they slept, the less they consumed calories at an ad libitum buffet. This work highlights the importance of getting enough sleep to maintain a good metabolic health and suggest that sleep optimization may have implications for novel public health interventions

abstract: Sleep is essential for physical and psychological health. Sleep has also been linked to the daily patterns of key stress-responsive physiological systems, specifically the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis and autonomic nervous system (ANS). Extant research examining sleep and diurnal patterns of cortisol, the primary end product of the HPA axis, is inconsistent. Moreover, it is not clear how specific aspects of sleep behavior (e.g., sleep duration, sleep quality, sleep variability) are related to specific components of diurnal cortisol rhythms. Salivary alpha-amylase (sAA) has been recognized as a surrogate marker of ANS activity, but limited research has explored relations between sleep and sAA diurnal rhythms. The current study utilized a modified ecological momentary assessment protocol to examine within- and between-person relations between multiple facets of sleep behavior using multiple methods (e.g., subjective report, actigraphy) and salivary cortisol and sAA. First year college students (N = 76) provided saliva samples and diary entries five times per day over the course of three days. Sleep was assessed via questionnaire, through daily diaries, and monitored objectively using actigraphy over a four day period. Between-person results revealed that shorter average sleep duration and greater sleep variability was related to lower levels of waking cortisol and flatter diurnal slopes across the day. Within-person results revealed that on nights when individuals slept for shorter durations than usual they also had lower levels of waking cortisol the next day. Sleep was not related to the cortisol awakening response (CAR) or diurnal patterns of sAA, in either between-person or within-person analyses. However, typical sleep behaviors measured via questionnaire were related to waking levels of sAA. Overall, this study provides a greater understanding of how multiple components of sleep, measured in naturalistic environments, is related to cortisol and sAA diurnal rhythms, and how day-to-day, within-person changes in sleep duration contribute to daily variations in cortisol. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Psychology 2015

Glucocorticoids are effective immunosuppressive and anti-inflammatory agents, but some aspects of stress appear to be proinflammatory. This study investigates this apparent paradox as it applies to stress exposure and the development of arthritis in a rat strain that has subnormal hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) responsiveness. Female Lewis rats were subjected to 1 week of rotating, psychological stressors for 5 h daily, beginning 7 days following inoculation with type [I collagen. The collagen-induced arthritis (CIA) group exposed lo stress showed reduced ankle width increase (p < 0.001) and decreased hindlimb severity scores (p < 0.001). At sacrifice, 2 days following stress termination, no differences in either measure remained and there was no difference in hind paw volume. However, the area of the tibia invaded by stroma, as quantitated by image analysis, was reduced in the stressed rats (p < 0.05). In animals exposed to stress, adrenal weights were increased (p < 0.005) and plasma corticosterone levels were elevated at sacrifice (p < 0.02). Both injected groups had significantly larger adrenal (p < 0.005) and lower thymus weights (p < 0.05) than did uninjected controls. Likewise, both CIA groups had reduced glucocorticoid receptor immunoreactivity in synovial membranes compared to controls (p < 0.001), suggesting that the Lewis rat's HPA deficiency may be intensified by glucocorticoid receptor downregulation during the induction of CIA. These data indicate that the responsiveness of the HPA axis to psychological stress in this strain is sufficient to alter disease progression.

abstract: Of the 2.87 million traumatic brain injuries (TBI) sustained yearly in the United States, 75% are diffuse injuries. A single TBI can have acute and chronic influences on the neuroendocrine system leading to hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA) dysregulation and increased affective disorders. Preliminary data indicate TBI causes neuroinflammation in the hippocampus, likely due to axonal damage, and in the paraventricular nucleus of the hypothalamus (PVN), where no axonal damage is apparent. Mechanisms regulating neuroinflammation in the PVN are unknown. Furthermore, chronic stress causes HPA dysregulation and glucocorticoid receptor (GR)-mediated neuroinflammation in the PVN. The goal of this project was to evaluate neuroinflammation in the HPA axis and determine if GR levels change at 7 days post-injury (DPI). Adult male and female Sprague Dawley rats were subjected to midline fluid percussion injury. At 7 DPI, half of each brain was post-fixed for immunohistochemistry (IBA-1) and half biopsied for gene/protein analysis. IBA-1 staining was analyzed for microglia activation via skeleton analysis in the hypothalamus and hippocampus. Extracted RNA and protein were used to quantify mRNA expression and protein levels for GRs. Data indicate increased microglia cell number and decreased endpoints/cell and process length in the PVN of males, but not females. In the dentate gyrus, both males and females have an increased microglia cell number after TBI, but there is also an interaction between sex and injury in microglia presentation, where males exhibit a more robust effect than females. Both sexes have significant decreases of endpoints/cell and process length. In both regions, GR protein levels decreased for injured males, but in the hippocampus, GR levels increased for injured females. Data indicate that diffuse TBI causes alterations in microglia morphology and GR levels in the hypothalamus and hippocampus at 7 DPI, providing a potential mechanism for HPA axis dysregulation at a sub-acute time point. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Biology 2019

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The early environment impacts many aspects of an individual’s developing phenotype. In particular, early environmental conditions are important for shaping the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, which coordinates an individual’s stress response. These developmental changes are likely mediated by epigenetic modifications, functional changes to the genome that can alter gene expression in response to environmental variation, resulting in significant phenotypic differences (Kundakovic and Champagne 2015; Richards 2006). Determining how early life variation alters epigenetic modifications (such as DNA methylation) of genes throughout the HPA axis, and how these marks change over time, in wild organisms is important for understanding their potential long-term fitness consequences. Here, I examine DNA methylation modifications in the HPA axis in relation to early environmental variation in free-living house sparrows (Passer domesticus). In Chapter 1, I show a relationship between natural variation in the early environment and DNA methylation marks of numerous genes related to HPA axis function, which in turn predict growth trajectories. In Chapter 2, I show that early life stress in particular impacts DNA methylation in genes critical to HPA axis function, but does so differently depending on the life history stage in which stress is encountered. Finally, in Chapter 3, I find that these early life marks have long-term effects past the developmental period, predicting longevity as well as lifetime reproductive output in a sex-specific manner. Overall, my dissertation adds to a growing understanding of the dynamic role of epigenetic modifications in mediating phenotypic responses to the early life environment in wild birds, and demonstrates the potential long-term fitness outcomes of these changes.

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