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We use the three-dimensional finite element code DYNA3D to analyze two problems: (a) the normal impact of a cylindrical monolithic or composite rod against a smooth flat rigid target, (commonly known as the Taylor impact test), and (b) the penetration of composite and monolithic steel cylindrical rods into reinforced concrete targets. The composite rod is made of either a steel or copper shell enclosing a ceramic. The ceramic and the steel are assumed to fail at a critical value of the effective plastic strain, whereas no failure is considered in the copper. The thermoviscoplastic response of steel and copper is modeled by the Johnson-Cook relation and the ceramic and concrete are assumed to be elastic-plastic. Values of material parameters in the constitutive relation for the reinforced concrete (RC) are derived by the rule of mixtures. Failure of a material is simulated by the element erosion technique for ceramic and steel, and element erosion along with stiffness reduction for the RC. The effect of the angle of obliquity of impact on the damage induced in the target is ascertained. For the solid cylindrical copper rod impacting a smooth flat rigid target, the time history of the deformed length and the axial variation of the final diameter are found to match well with the experimental findings. For the composite rod, the diameter of the deformed impacted surface, the shape and size of the mushroomed region and the volume fraction of the failed ceramic material strongly depend upon the impact speed, the shell wall thickness and the thickness of the solid copper rod at the front end. Some composite cylindrical rods impacting at normal incidence RC targets were found to buckle during the penetration process in the sense that their outer diameter at a cross-section close to the impacted end increased by at least 20%. For steel penetrators, the damage experienced increased as the nose shape got blunter and the angle of obliquity became larger whereas the damage induced to the target only increased with penetrator bluntness. / Master of Science

M. Tech. (Department of Mechanical Engineering, Faculty of Engineering and Technology), Vaal University of Technology / A project investigating the behaviour of an assembled preloaded rotor was performed for an M-Tech qualification in the Mechanical Engineering Department. Pre-Stressing of mechanical structures is widely applied to improve their performance, and in this project the behaviour of an assembled preloaded rotor was investigated. An Impact Test was done on the structure to see if induced stresses originated by a set of bolts which keep the discs system together, would influence the natural dynamic response or the rotor. Tendencies in the natural response were investigated. Analytical models like the Finite Element Beam model and the Solid Finite Element model were studied in order to find a represntative description of this particular structure's dynamic behaviour after pre-tension. From the experimental results it was apparent that the slenderness of the pre-tensioned sector influences the natural frequency. The solid finite element model appears to be the most applicable model to present the assembled rotor-disk system as a continuous shaft. Furthermore, modelling and predictions for a typical rotor and similar assembled structures can be generated from the findings.

The effect of hydrogen charging current density and tensile strain rate on the mechanical properties of X80 pipeline steel were investigated by slow strain rate test (SSRT), Charpy impact test, and scanning electron microscopy (SEM) in this thesis. The results show that both the ultimate tensile strength and elongation to failure of X80 steel were deteriorated significantly after charging with hydrogen. With a strain rate of 5 x 10-5 s-1, the relative tensile strength and plasticity loss of X80 steel had no significant change within the range of assumed hydrogen partial pressures at room temperature. At room temperature, X80 steel had no apparent variation in ultimate tensile strength and elongation, except at the strain rate of 10-6 s-1. Specimens obtained the greatest relative tensile strength loss and plasticity loss when strained at 10-6 s-1 with a current density of 4.6 mA/cm2. The fracture morphology of two test groups of X80 steel exhibited significant brittle rupture when tested with dynamic hydrogen charging. The impact energy of X80 was not affected by hydrogen charging. Different current density also had no influence on the results of the impact test.

Le contexte global de réchauffement climatique et de fin programmée des carburants d'origine fossile a conduit depuis quelques décennies au développement des biocarburants. Les nombreux inconvénients liés à la première génération de biocarburants ont peu à peu donné naissance aux biocarburants de seconde génération dont l'avantage notable est d'utiliser la partie ligno-cellulosique des plantes. La principale voie de conversion envisagée consiste en une gazeification suivie d'une synthèse Fisher-Tropsch. Mais la dispersion énergétique et géographique de la biomasse ainsi que les nombreuses contraintes liées au processus de fabrication nécessitent la mise au point d'un préconditionnement adéquat. Le matériau utilisé devra en effet être homogène, concentré énergétiquement, stockable et facilement transportable. Il devra aussi être facilement broyable en vue de son injection sous pression dans les gazéifieurs. Une voie de prétraitement possible consiste à torréfier la biomasse. Le présent travail s'inscrit dans cette thématique puisqu'il a permis une caractérisation chimique, énergétique et mécanique du bois (Pinus pinaster et Quercus robur) traité thermiquement (T°C<300°C). Dans une première partie du travail, des analyses chimiques et énergétiques de bois traités thermiquement à différentes intensités ont été réalisées. Les résultats ont permis de quantifier la dégradation chimique et la densification énergétique lorsque l'intensité du traitement augmente. Il s'avère que la perte de masse est un excellent indicateur de ces modifications : des relations de prédiction de l'évolution de ces propriétés ont été établies. Un dispositif d'impact original a été développé dans la seconde partie du travail. Les résultats obtenus montrent une augmentation de la broyabilité du bois lorsque l'intensité de son traitement thermique augmente. Avec l'intensité du traitement, le bois perd d'abord sa résilience, puis son comportement fibreux.Cela permet la formation de fines particules particulièrement adaptées aux processus de fabrication des biocarburants de seconde génération. / Biofuels are developed worldwide since the few last decades to face two major problems of our societies: global warming and peak oil. Due to many disadvantages of the first generation of biofuel, a second generation is developed, whose major advantage is to use the lignocellulosic part of plants. One interesting way to produce this kind of biofuel is a gasification followed by a Fisher-Tropsch synthesis. However, a pretreatment is needed because raw biomass is not suitable for a direct use in gasifier. The role of the pretreatment is to homogenize product properties, to ease storage and transport, to concentrate the energy content. Moreover, its grindability has also to be improved since fine particles are required to supply the gasifier. The present work proposes a comprehensive chemical, energetic and mechanical characterization of wood (Pinus pinaster and Quercus robur) with different treatment intensities (T°C<300°C). The first part proposes a full set of chemical and energy analysis on heat-treated woods. The mass loss was confirmed as a synthetic indicator of the effect of treatment intensity on the degree of chemical degradation and energy concentration. Therefore, analytical expressions allowing the prediction of energy and chemical properties as a function of the overall mass loss are provided. The second part of the work consists in the development and use of a novel impact device. Results obtained in radial and tangential directions show that the heat treatment improves the wood grindability. As the treatment intensity increases, wood first losses its resilience first, followed by a loss of its fibrous behavior. The later eases its transformation into small particles suitable for gasification process.

Les travaux de la thèse visent à mettre en place une méthodologie innovante de caractérisation du comportement viscoplastique des matériaux métalliques sous chargement purement inertiel. Sous chargements mécaniques extrêmes (e.g., crash, impact ou explosions), leur comportement mécanique présente en effet pour nombre d’entre eux une sensibilité à la vitesse de déformation. Des approches dites statiquement déterminées sont majoritairement utilisées pour caractériser leur comportement, mais elles requièrent de nombreux essais dont les conditions expérimentales sont souvent contraintes comme par exemple l’homogénéité de la vitesse de déformation qui doit être maintenue constante en temps par exemple. En revanche, des approches dites statiquement indéterminées permettent l’exploitation d’essais mécaniques avec peu d’hypothèses (voire sans) sur les conditions d’essai. Une méthodologie fondée sur un essai d’impact purement intertiel est mise en oeuvre ici pour identifier le comportement viscoplastique de ces matériaux. Avec la Méthode des Champs Virtuels, la méthodologie permet l’identification des paramètres matériaux en exploitant uniquement la mesure des champs de déformation et d’accélération, potentiellement hétérogènes en temps et en espace. Ainsi, celui-ci peut être caractérisé sur une large gamme de déformations et de vitesses de déformation plastiques en procédant à un nombre limité d’expériences. La méthode repose sur le développement d’un simulateur d’images avancé permettant de définir au préalable l’ensemble du dispositif expérimental (géométrie de l’éprouvette et conditions expérimentales). Optimisées numériquement pour prescrire les paramètres d’essai critiques, les réalisations expérimentales menées sur un alliage de Titane utilisé dans l’industrie aéronautique ont permis d’identifier les paramètres d’un modèle de Johnson-Cook sur un spectre de déformations et de vitesses de déformation plastiques pré-déterminé. Les incertitudes de la mesure sont également intégrées et analysées dans ce travail. / This thesis aims at developing an innovative methodology for viscoplastic material behaviour characterization of metallic materials under purely inertial loads. Indeed, their mechanical behaviour under extreme conditions (e.g., crash, impact or explosions) is often rate-dependant. Statically determinate approaches are mainly used to characterize their behaviour. However, they require numerous tests for which testing conditions are strongly constrained, such as the strain rate which has to remain constant in time and space for instance. By contrast, statically undeterminate approaches enable test processing with a few (or without) hypotheses on experimental conditions. In this work, the Image-Based Inertial Impact test methodology has been extended to characterize the viscoplastic behaviour of metallic materials. Owing to the Virtual Fields Method, it enables the identification of constitutive material parameters with the sole knowledge of strain and acceleration fields (possibly heterogeneous in time and space). Therefore, constitutive models can be characterized over a wide range of plastic strain and strain rate, while the number of tests is limited. Tests design notably relies on the development of a synthetic images generator to determine the experimental setup (e.g., specimen geometry or testing conditions). Finally, experiments are carried out with optimized test configurations to identify Johnson-Cook parameters over a predicted range of plastic strain and strain rate for a titanium alloy widely used in aerospace industry. Identification uncertainties are also quantified and analysed in this work.

The effects of weld temperature, travel speed, and backing plate thermal diffusivity on themechanical properties of a weld have been studied. A face centered cubic experiment of designwas completed in which the response variables were yield strength, minimum hardness in the HAZ, and charpy impact toughness. Three models were created from the data gathered usinga stepwise regression in order to see the effects of each parameter. For the yield strength andminimum hardness it was found that only travel speed and backing plate thermal diffusivities werestatistically significant to the properties. The charpy impact toughness saw that all three parameterswere statistically significant to its value. In all three models the travel speed had the greatest affecton the material properties.

The growing negative impacts of non-biodegradable plastics derived from non-renewable materials have created increasing interest throughout the world for new materials that are both biodegradable and renewable, that can be combined with or replace traditional plastics. Plant-based thermoplastic starch (TPS), a promising alternative material to traditional petroleum based resin, is both biodegradable and renewable and has great potential for use in plastic manufacturing processes. Two major obstacles that prevent more widespread use of TPS include; TPS base material, which is typically manufactured in a flake or powder, is incompatible with standard plastics production equipment that require pelletized resin, the second reason is that TPS is difficult to mix with standard plastic materials such as High Density Polyethylene (HDPE). BiologiQ of Blackfoot Idaho through a unique manufacturing process has created a new type of TPS called EcoStarch™ Resin (ESR) that overcomes these two obstacles the material can be both pelletized and combined with various standard base plastics such as HDPE. This study evaluated and characterized the processability materials properties of ESR and HDPE blends in the Extrusion Blow Molding (EBM) by measuring wall thickness, tensile strength, tensile elongation, modulus of elongation and formability compared to 100% HDPE bottles. As the ESR content increased the uniformity of the wall thickness increased. The tensile strength increased from ESR content of 30% to 50% while the elongation decreased. Bottles were successfully extrusion blow molded with ESR content of 50%.

Com o decorrer dos anos o consumo de petróleo e seus derivados aumentou significativamente e com isso houve a necessidade de se investir em pesquisas para descobertas de novas jazidas de petróleo como o pré-sal. Porém, não apenas a localização dessas jazidas deve ser estudada, mas, também, sua forma de exploração. Essa exploração e extração, na maioria das vezes, se dão em ambientes altamente corrosivos e o transporte do produto extraído é realizado através de tubulações de aço de alta resistência e baixa liga (ARBL). Aços ARBL expostos a ambientes contendo H2S e CO2 (sour gas) sofrem corrosão generalizada que promovem a entrada de hidrogênio atômico no metal, podendo diminuir sua tenacidade e causar falha induzida pela presença de hidrogênio (Hydrogen Induced Cracking HIC), gerando falhas graves no material. Tais falhas podem ser desastrosas para o meio ambiente e para a sociedade. O objetivo deste trabalho é estudar a tenacidade, utilizando ensaio Charpy, de um tubo API 5L X65 sour após diferentes tempos de imersão em uma solução saturada com H2S. O eletrólito empregado foi a solução A (ácido acético contendo cloreto de sódio) da norma NACE TM0284 (2011), fazendo-se desaeração com injeção de N2, seguida de injeções de H2S. Os materiais foram submetidos a: ensaios de resistência a HIC segundo a norma NACE TM0284 (2011) e exames em microscópio óptico e eletrônico de varredura para caracterização microestrutural, de inclusões e trincas. As amostras foram submetidas a imersão em solução A durante 96h e 360h, sendo que, após doze dias do término da imersão, foram realizados os ensaios Charpy e exames fractográficos. Foram aplicados dois métodos: o de energia absorvida e o da expansão lateral, conforme recomendações da norma ASTM E23 (2012). As curvas obtidas, em função da temperatura de impacto, foram ajustadas pelo método da tangente hiperbólica. Esses procedimentos foram realizados nas duas seções do tubo (transversal e longitudinal) e permitiram a obtenção dos seguintes parâmetros: energias absorvidas e expansão lateral nos patamares superior e inferior e temperaturas de transição dúctil-frágil (TTDF) em suas diferentes definições, ou seja, TTDFEA, TTDFEA-DN, TTDFEA-FN, TTDFEL, TTDFEL-DN e TTDFEL-FN (identificação no item Lista de Abreviaturas e Siglas). No exame fractográfico observou-se que o material comportou-se conforme o previsto, ou seja, em temperaturas mais altas ocorreu fratura dúctil, em temperaturas próximas a TTDF obteve-se fratura mista e nas temperaturas mais baixas observou-se o aparecimento de fratura frágil. Os resultados mostraram que quanto maior o tempo de imersão na solução A, menor é a energia absorvida e a expansão lateral no patamar superior, o que pode ser explicado pelo (esperado) aumento do teor de hidrogênio em solução sólida com o tempo de imersão. Por sua vez, os resultados mostraram que há tendência à diminuição da temperatura de transição dúctil-frágil com o aumento do tempo de imersão, particularmente, as TTDFEA-DN e TTDFEL-DN das duas seções do tubo (longitudinal e transversal). Esse comportamento controverso, que pode ser denominado de tenacificação com o decorrer do tempo de imersão na solução A, foi explicado pelo aparecimento de trincas secundárias durante o impacto (Charpy). Isso indica uma limitação do ensaio Charpy para a avaliação precisa de materiais hidrogenados. / Over the years the consumption of crude oil and its derivatives increased significantly, creating the necessity to invest in research to discover new sources of pre-salt crude oil. However, not only the location of these deposits should be studied, but also its extraction. This exploration and extraction, in most cases, occur in highly corrosive environments and the transport of the extracted product is performed by high strength low alloy steel pipes (HSLA). HSLA steels exposed to environments containing CO2 and H2S (sour gas) suffer general corrosion that promotes the diffusion of atomic hydrogen into the metal structure, which may decrease its toughness and induce cracks by the presence of hydrogen (Hydrogen Induced Cracking - HIC), leading the material to severe failures. Such events can be disastrous for the environment and the society. The objective of this work is to study the toughness using Charpy Impact Tests on an API 5L X65 sour service steel pipe, submitted to different immersion times in a H2S saturated solution. The used electrolyte was the NACE TM0284 (2011) solution A (acetic acid containing sodium chloride), with deaeration by N2 injection followed by H2S injection. The materials were submitted to HIC resistance tests according to NACE TM0284 (2011) standard and examination by optical microscopy and scanning electron microscopy for microstructural inclusions and cracks characterization. The samples were immersed in the solution for 96h and 360h and after twelve days of immersion, Charpy tests and fracture analysis were performed. Two analytical methods were applied to Charpy tests results: the energy absorbed and lateral expansion, as recommended by the ASTM E23 (2012). The obtained curves, that are a function of impact temperature, were adjusted by the hyperbolic tangent method. This procedure was performed in two different orientations in the pipe (transverse and longitudinal) and allowed the determination of the following parameters: energy absorbed and lateral expansion in the upper and lower levels and ductile-to-brittle transition temperatures (DBTT) in its different definitions: DBTTAE, DBTTAE-DN, DBTTAE-FN, DBTTLE, DBTTLE-DN e DBTTLE-FN. Fracture analysis revealed that the material behaved as expected, meaning that at higher temperatures ductile fracture occurred, at temperatures near DBTT it was obtained a mixed fracture and at lower temperatures it was observed the presence of brittle fracture. Results showed that when the immersion time in the solution was higher, the energy absorbed in upper shelf decreases, and also lateral expansion in upper shelf decreases, which may be explained by the (expected) increase of hydrogen level in solid solution, induced by the immersion time. It was found that there is a tendency of the ductile-to-brittle transition temperature to be lower with the increase of immersion time, particularly the DBTTAE-DN and DBTTLE-DN of the two pipe sections (longitudinal and transversal). This controversial behavior, which may be defined as the toughening by the increase of immersion time in the solution A, was explained by the appearance of secondary cracks during impact test (Charpy). This indicates a limitation of the Charpy test for the accurate characterization of hydrogenated materials, concerning toughness.

Neste trabalho buscou-se propor e implementar um modelo de material capaz de prever o comportamento mecânico de estruturas em compósitos poliméricos reforçados (CPR). Inicialmente fez-se um levantamento bibliográfico sobre os modos de danificação intralaminar e falhas interlaminares bem como sobre formas de abordagem (analítica e numérica) para tratar esses problemas. Em seguida, foram apresentadas em detalhes as etapas experimentais executadas, descrevendo todo o procedimento de fabricação dos corpos-de-prova e os resultados obtidos a partir dos ensaios quase-estáticos de tração, compressão, cisalhamento e flexão. Com base nesses resultados e em informações provenientes da literatura, propõem-se alguns modelos de material que foram implementados em sub-rotinas FORTRAN. Tais modelos são posteriormente compilados em conjunto com um programa de elementos finitos (ABAQUS®) a fim de serem avaliados e terem seus parâmetros calibrados. Numa primeira fase, através de simulações computacionais dos ensaios de tração e compressão avaliou-se os modelos de material implementados. Numa segunda fase, os parâmetros foram calibrados tomando como base três estudos de caso (flexão, endentação e teste de impacto) envolvendo seqüências de empilhamento distintas. Após a simulação computacional desses estudos, apresentou-se a proposta de uma metodologia para avaliar problemas de impacto a baixa velocidade em estruturas laminadas. Conclui-se assim que o presente projeto de pesquisa traz contribuições inovadoras, mas também apresenta várias perspectivas de trabalhos futuros. / In this work, material models were proposed to predict the mechanical behavior of composite structures. First of all, it was done a study about damage intra-ply and inter-ply (delamination) on composite materials and about analytical and numerical approaches to solve problems of progressive damage on composite structures was performed. After, many specimens were manufactured and experimental tests (tensile, compression, shear and flexural tests) were carried out. Experimental results and information from literature were used to develop some material models, which were implemented using FORTRAN compiler. These material models were compiled with a commercial finite element program (ABAQUS®) in order to evaluate and calibrate parameters of the models. In the first step, computational simulations of tensile and compression test were carried out to evaluate material models implemented. In the second step, the parameters of the material models were calibrated using three case studies (flexural, indentation and impact test) with some staking sequences. After that, a methodology was proposed to evaluate impact problems on composite structures under low velocity. Therefore, this research project not only shows new contributions but also suggests many future investigations.