This thesis consists of four separate chapters which address different aspects of inequality and income determination. The first three chapters are country-level studies which examine (1) how incomes are shaped by spatial price differences, (2) the factor income composition, and (3) enterprise size. The final chapter analyses how income inequality changed at the global level. The first chapter investigates the implications of regional price differences for earnings differentials and inequality in Germany. I combine a district-level price index with administrative earnings data from social security records. Prices have a strong equalising effect on district average wages in West Germany, but a weaker effect in East Germany and at the national level. The change in overall inequality as a result of regional price differences is small (although significant in many cases), because inequality is mostly explained by differences within rather than between districts. The second chapter is motivated by the rapid increase in top income shares in the United States since the 1980s. Using data derived from tax filings, I show that this pattern is very similar after controlling for changes in tax unit size. Over the same period as top income shares increased, the composition of these incomes changed dramatically, with the labour share rising. Using a non-parametric copula framework, I show that incomes from labour and capital have become more closely associated at the top. This association is asymmetric such that top wage earners are more likely to also receive high capital incomes, compared with top capital income recipients receiving high wages. In the third chapter, I investigate the positive cross-sectional relationship between enterprise size and earnings using panel data from Ghana. I find evidence for a significant firm size effect in matched firm-worker data and a labour force panel, even after controlling for individual fixed effects. The size effect in self-employment is stronger in the cross-section, but it is driven by individual time-invariant characteristics. The final chapter studies the global interpersonal income distribution using a newly constructed and improved database of national household surveys between 1988 and 2008. The chapter finds that the global Gini remains high and approximately unchanged at around 0.7. However, this hides a substantial change in the global distribution from a twin-peaked distribution in 1988 into a single-peaked one now. Furthermore, the regional composition of the global distribution changed, as China graduated from the bottom ranks. As a result of the growth in Asia, the poorest quantiles of the global distribution are now largely from Sub-Saharan Africa. By exploiting the panel dimension of the dataset, the analysis shows which decile-groups within countries have benefitted most over this 20-year period. In addition, the chapter presents a preliminary assessment of how estimates of global inequality are affected by the likely underreporting of top incomes in surveys.

Les produits forestiers non ligneux (PFNL) font partie des ressources naturelles dont la population congolaise a recours pour diversifier ses activités productives et améliorer ses revenus. Ces produits font partie essentielle des différents menus ; ils garantissent la diversité, la qualité et l’accessibilité des aliments à une grande majorité de la population. Le manque d’information systématique permettant d’évaluer la contribution des PFNL au revenu des ménages et à l’amélioration de la sécurité alimentaire, l’absence des programmes officiels de gestion et de promotion de ces produits constituent un des obstacles à la prospérité du secteur des PFNL et à l’amélioration du niveau de vie de la population.Le présent travail analyse de manière globale et pour la première fois en République du Congo la contribution des PFNL à la sécurité alimentaire. Il couvre les aspects liés aux définitions des PFNL, à leur classification en PFNL d’origine végétale et en PFNL d’origine animale, au contexte institutionnel ; il identifie les principaux acteurs notamment le groupe d’acteurs socio-économiques impliqués dans l’exploitation et la gestion des PFNL au niveau local, les modes d’exploitation et leurs impacts sur le milieu naturel ; les filières de commercialisation permettant de cerner les produits d’exportation ont été tour à tour analysées. Une partie importante de l’étude est consacrée à l’analyse de la contribution des PFNL au régime alimentaire de la population congolaise. Ce travail relève les principales difficultés et obstacles d’ordre social, institutionnel, commercial et de gestion qui freinent le développement normal du secteur des PFNL. / The non-timber forests Products (NTFP) are part of natural resources of which the Congolese population has recourse to diversify its productive activities and to improve its income. These products are essential part of various menus; they guarantee the diversity, the quality, and the access to foods to a greater majority of the population. The lack of systematic information enabling to evaluate the contribution of NTFP to the income of households and to the improvement of food security, the lack of official programs of management and the promotion of these products constitute one of the obstacles to the prosperity of the NTFP sector and the improvement of the living standard of the people.The present work is aimed at analyzing in a global way and for the first time in the Republic of the Congo, the contribution of NTFP to food security. It covers the aspects related to the definitions of NTFP, to their classification in NTFP of vegetable origin and NTFP of animal origin, to the institutional context; it identifies the main stakeholders mainly the group of socio- economic actors involved in the exploitation and management of NTFP at the local level, the modes of exploitation and their impacts on the natural environment; the fields of commercialization enabling to fully understand the export products have been alternatively analyzed . A great important part of the study is devoted to the contribution analysis of the NTFP to the food diet of the Congolese people. This work highlights the main difficulties and obstacles of the social, institutional, commercial order and management which hinder the normal development of the NTFP sector.

Australian wool traders and researchers have little knowledge of the incomplete adoption of the price risk management strategies that are available to stabilise wool producers’ incomes. Auction is by far the most popular method of selling wool in Australia with an adoption rate of about 85%. However this system exposes users (wool producers and buyers alike) to highly volatile prices and non-specific knowledge of supply and demand. Furthermore, it places differentiated wool types in the same commodity market as mass produced, homogeneous wool types. In order to address these issues, a mixed-method research design was used to develop and test a behavioural model of wool producers’ intentions to adopt the use of forward contracts; a selling method alternative to auction. In the simplest terms, a forward contract is a binding agreement between a buyer and a seller that stipulates price, quality, quantity and delivery date of a product. The behavioural model developed for this research was based on the Theory of Reasoned Action, Theory of Planned Behaviour and Diffusion of Innovations as well as some farm-level constructs that were raised in focus groups with Western Australian wool producers. The focus groups were pivotal in adding a unique, farm-level decision-making dimension to the behavioural model by the inclusion of various factors external and internal to the farm business. Based on the behavioural model, 28 hypotheses were developed and tested. Data was collected via a telephone survey of 305 Western Australian wool producers and analysis was conducted using the Partial Least Squares (PLS) approach to Structural Equation Modelling (SEM). / A key finding of this analysis, contrary to the initial indications of focus group discussions, is that the current selling and marketing structure of the Australian wool industry, including the dominance of the auction system, is an important but not a limiting factor associated with the adoption of forward contracts for the sale of raw wool. Similarly, some other factors internal to the farm business, such as past experiences with selling wool, level of dependence on wool to earn a living and commitment to producing wool, were also found not to limit the adoption of forward contracts. The main factor limiting the adoption of forward contracts was identified as the wool producers’ perceptions of risk and uncertainty. Farmers’ perceptions of risk and uncertainty and their perceptions and attitudes in general are known to be important influences on farmers’ adoption decisions. While the majority of the hypotheses tested within the model were explained by the data, further data were collected to solve the issues associated with why farmers perceive forward contracting as being subject to risk and uncertainty. Additional research was conducted in the form of four case studies with Western Australian wool producers who had varying commitments to using forward contacts. Results showed that profit-raising, the whole farm system as a basis for decision making, the mass media and social pressures are important behavioural factors that are limiting the adoption of forward contracts by Western Australian wool producers. Overall, the results of the study indicate that the current structure of the Australian wool industry and various factors internal to the farm business account for farmers’ attitudes towards the use of forward contracts to sell their wool. / More importantly, from an agribusiness point of view, it is the perceived risk associated with price that principally accounts for the incomplete adoption of forward contracts in the wool industry. The conclusions of this study resulted in the development of new research questions that focus on the study’s theoretical framework, the impact of supply chain dynamics on the adoption of forward contracts and the empirical testing of additional behavioural determinants such as trust, habit and social cohesion. Based on the results of this study, several contributions have been made to the literature and agribusiness. The study showed that variables from the Diffusion of Innovations model played a significant part in this research. However, the more substantial finding was that the Theory of Reasoned Action is likely to be a superior theoretical framework for modelling wool producers’ adoption behaviours related to forward contracts than the Theory of Planned Behaviour. This claim is based on the finding that perceived behavioural controls are not a significant factor in the intention of wool producers to adopt the use of forward contracts. In terms of the contributions to agribusiness, information and extension initiatives that explain and demonstrate the benefits of forward contracts may be necessary if farmers’ perceptions of the riskiness and uncertainty surrounding these contracts are to be altered.

One of the main underlying sources of economic growth is productivity. An economy can grow by either accumulation of its inputs, namely labour and capital, or improvements in productivity. The latter implies that more can be produced with the same amount of inputs, generating a greater amount of income that can be distributed among the economy's population. With rising per capita incomes, an economy can provide higher living standards and well-being. This thesis analyses variations in economic and productivity trends among the states of Australia and the USA. It investigates whether disparities in GSP per capita, labour and multifactor productivity among the states have declined (converged) or widened (diverged), during this period. The analysis is undertaken at a national level as well as for specific industries to identify the sectoral sources of the various trends. Further, in an interstate analysis the performance of individual states is examined to identify those that may have had a major role in accounting for the observed trends. The analysis employs both cross - section and time - series techniques. Contrary to earlier studies, this thesis finds that lately the interstate dispersion of per capita incomes and productivity has stopped decreasing. In Australia, once the Mining sector (which is a special case) is excluded from the analysis, the levels of GSP per capita and labour productivity in the various states are found to have neither converged nor diverged. Convergence trends among the US states observed prior to the 1990s have not only slowed down but even reversed into divergence. Divergence in labour productivity started during the 1980s in the service industries and was followed by the Manufacturing sector (and here in particular by the Electronic and Electrical Equipment industry) during the 1990s. There appears to be a belt of states in the West (and a few states in the North-East) which started off relatively poorly but managed to catch-up with the richer states due to an above average growth performance in labour productivity and multi factor productivity. Some of these states did not only manage to catch-up with richer ones but continued to surge ahead, causing the observed increase in the interstate dispersion in recent years. Policy makers, especially those in the states that are falling behind need to develop policies that will lead to an increase in the rate of productivity growth. In order to achieve this they must foster industries, which are conducive to higher growth rates and adopt policies that would increase the productivity of the labour force. These policies will need to create an environment in which productivity enhancing innovation can be sustained. States need to engage in research and development activities to ensure the invention and the adoption of new technologies.

The diploma thesis is focused on budgetary economy of selected minucipality, in this case the town Horní Planá. There are described functions of the municipality, its institutions and a property, separation of the property and management with it. The thesis is focused on a budgetary economy of a municipality, a budget, a budget composition, where are defined budgetary incomes and expeditures and subsequently a budgetary outlook is analyzed there. The aim of this thesis is to analyze the economy of the town Horní Planá, which is performed on the data in the next five years, based on the analysis recommend possible measures to achieve the optimum relationship between the economy, efficiency and effectiveness, or finding potential funding sources. Partial aims are evaluation of the progression budgets in the period and to determine the effects of ganges of incomes and expenditures in different years, to analyze cash flow over the period and evaluate influences on cash flow and the analysis of the property of selected municipality and its funding.

No description available.

Sur le plan mondial, le nombre de patients infectés par le VIH (PVVIH) sous traitement antirétroviral (TARV) est en constante augmentation. Les pays aux ressources limitées (PRL) sont les plus touchés par l’épidémie et de fortes inégalités existent ce malgré des objectifs ambitieux fixés par les Nations Unies en 2015 (90-90-90). Le suivi biologique nécessaire des patients sous TARV est connu et les avantages de la mesure de la charge virale (CV) sont bien établis en termes de détection précoce de l'échec thérapeutique, de détection de la non-observance au TARV et de prévention de l’accumulation de résistances. Cependant, dans les PRL et notamment en zone décentralisée, l’accès à la mesure de la CV reste très restreint. Les obstacles sont divers : difficulté d’accès pour les patients à un laboratoire en capacité d’effectuer cette mesure, manque en ressources humaines et matérielles. L’utilisation des Dried Blood Spot (DBS) comme support de prélèvement permet de surmonter ces barrières notamment du fait de sa simplicité, de l’absence de nécessité de chaine de froid et de l’utilisation des machines existantes.L’objectif de ce travail de thèse est de proposer et d’évaluer une stratégie afin d’améliorer le suivi virologique des PVVIH sous TARV issus de zones décentralisées de PRL en montrant la faisabilité et la validité d’un système de collecte de DBS afin de donner accès à la mesure de la CV aux patients suivis dans des centres non dotés des machines couteuses et de la logistique nécessaire à la réalisation de celle-ci. Une méta-analyse sur le contrôle virologique en Afrique Sub-saharienne a mis en évidence un taux de succès virologique en « intention de traiter » de 65.4% [61.8_69.1] et de 56.8% [51.3-62.4] à respectivement 12 et 24 mois de TARV ainsi qu’une proportion de succès significativement plus élevée rapportées dans les essais cliniques comparativement à ceux issus des cohortes. Ensuite, plusieurs projets ont été menés afin d’obtenir des résultats dans des conditions de vie réelle dans deux zones géographiques différentes: le Cameroun et le Vietnam. Au Cameroun, une étude menée dans 12 sites décentralisés a permis d’évaluer 2215 patients dont 937 ont été évalués virologiquement. Cette étude a montré un faible taux de rétention avec 63.3%, 53.5% et 39.9% à respectivement 12, 24 et 36 mois de l’initiation du TARV. Le taux de suppression virologique était très bas avec 66.6%, 62.7% et 59.8% à respectivement 12, 24 et 36 mois de TARV. Le profil des résistances virales analysé chez les patients ayant une CV>5000 cp/mL a montré une accumulation importante des résistances virales, s’aggravant au cours du temps et hypothéquant les options. Au Vietnam, deux études incluant 198 et 203 patients, ont été menées afin d’évaluer les performances de la mesure de la CV sur DBS comparativement au plasma. Trois techniques de mesure de la CV issues de deux industriels ont été évaluées. Une sensibilité de 93.3% [81.7–98.6], 90.1% [80.7-95.9] et 54.9% [40.3–68.9] a été trouvé avec respectivement l’ancien et le nouveau protocole fournis par Abbott et le nouveau protocole fourni par Roche (FVE). La spécificité retrouvé a été respectivement de 94.8% [90.0–97.7], 96.2% [91.4-98.8] et 100% [97.5–100]. Ainsi, à travers ces travaux nous avons montré que l’utilisation des DBS est faisable, immédiatement disponible et d’un niveau de performance acceptable. Elle permet d’apporter des données précieuses tant au niveau individuel, collectif que programmatique. L’utilisation des DBS devrait être intégrée à la stratégie d’expansion de l’accès à la CV. Le suivi virologique des patients est un enjeu de Santé Publique majeur dans un contexte d’utilisation en 1ère ligne de TARV de molécules à barrière génétique faible à la résistance, d’augmentation des résistances transmises et acquises et d’un taux d’incidence encore élevé de l’infection. / Worldwide, the number of HIV-infected patients (PLWHA) on antiretroviral therapy (ART) is growing steadily. Low- and Middle-Incomes Countries (LMICs) are the most affected and strong inequalities still exist despite ambitious goals set by the United Nations in 2015 (90-90-90). The required biological monitoring of patients on ART is well known and the benefits of viral load (VL) measurement are well established, in terms of early detection of treatment failure, detection of non-adherence to ART and prevention of resistance accumulation. However, in LMICs and especially in decentralized areas, access to VL measurement remains scarce or unavailable. Barriers are various: difficulty for patients to reach a laboratory able to perform this measurement, lack of human and material resources. The use of Dried Blood Spot (DBS) as a sampling carrier allows to overcome these barriers, in particular because of its simplicity, the lack of the necessity of a cold chain and the use of existing machines. This PhD work aims at proposing and improving virological monitoring of PLWHA on ART living in decentralized areas of LMICs by demonstrating the feasibility and validity of a DBS collection system to provide access to VL measurement for patients followed in centres not equipped with costly machines and the logistics for its realization.A meta-analysis on virological success in Sub-Saharan Africa was conducted. This work showed a virological success rate in "intention to treat" analysis of 65.4%[61.8-69.1] and 56.8%[51.3-62.4] at 12 and 24 months of ART respectively, and a significantly higher proportion of success reported in clinical trials compared to cohorts. Then, several projects were conducted to obtain results in real life conditions in two different settings: Cameroon and Vietnam. In Cameroon, a study conducted in 12 decentralized sites evaluated 2215 PLWHA on ART, 937 of whom were virologically evaluated. This study showed a low retention rate with 63.3%, 53.5% and 39.9% at 12, 24 and 36 months after ART initiation, respectively. Virological suppression rate was also low with 66.6%, 62.7% and 59.8% at 12, 24 and 36 months of ART, respectively. Profiles of HIV Drug Resistance (HIVDR) in patients with VL>5000 cp/mL showed a significant accumulation of viral resistance, worsening over time and hypothecating therapeutic options. In Vietnam, two studies, involving 198 and 203 patients, were conducted to evaluate performance of VL measurement on DBS compared to plasma. Three VL techniques from two manufacturers were evaluated. Sensitivities of 93.3% [81.7-98.6], 90.1% [80.7-95.9] and 54.9% [40.3-68.9] were found with the old and optimized protocol provided by Abbott company and the new protocol provided by Roche company (FVE), respectively. Specificities were 94.8% [90.0-97.7], 96.2% [91.4-98.8] and 100% [97.5-100], respectively. Through this work, we showed that the use of DBS is feasible, immediately available and with an acceptable level of performance. It provides valuable data at the individual, collective and programmatic levels. The use of DBS should be integrated into the strategy of expanding access to VL. Virological monitoring of patients is a major public health challenge in a context of use in first line ART of molecules with a low genetic barrier to HIVDR, an increase of transmitted and acquired HIVDR and a persistently high incidence of infection.

Orientador: David Dequech Filho / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Economia / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T17:36:01Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Santos_AndreLuisMotados_D.pdf: 1503863 bytes, checksum: 3e0350221d980ad77c5ba5b368aaba80 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Esta tese examina a compatibilidade do sistema de metas de inflação com uma estrutura econômica que é caracterizada como pós-keynesiana. Essa estrutura é formada por três elementos: uma relação IS; uma relação como a curva de Phillips, mas com teor pós-keynesiano; e um processo adaptativo de formação de expectativas para a taxa de inflação. Políticas monetária e de rendas reagem ao desvio da inflação em relação a uma meta de inflação e/ou ao desvio do produto em relação a uma meta para o produto. Essas funções de reação para as políticas monetária e de rendas fecham o sistema, e diferentes funções de reação conformam diferentes sistemas dinâmicos. Expectativas dependem das taxas de inflação passadas e da taxa meta de inflação: elas são adaptadas em cada período tomando-se a discrepância entre o valor da inflação esperado e a média ponderada entre inflação observada e meta de inflação. A depender de qual desvio ou quais desvios compõem cada função de reação, a combinação de políticas pode ser classificada como pós-keynesiana, ortodoxa ou mesmo como contendo elementos de ambas as orientações. Uma combinação de funções de reação capaz de gerar convergência dos desvios do produto e da inflação em relação às respectivas metas de maneira que cada política seja independente uma da outra tem algum grau de compatibilidade com a estrutura da economia. A capacidade de convergência de cada sistema mede o grau de compatibilidade das políticas com a estrutura da economia. Para alcançar metas para produto e inflação, a maioria dos modelos mostra que a política de rendas deve reagir, no mínimo, ao desvio da inflação, enquanto a política monetária deve pelo menos reagir ao desvio do produto. Um caráter convencional ou institucional surge quando há sucesso do sistema de metas de inflação, o que garante aderência da confiança ao processo de formação de expectativas. / Abstract: This dissertation analyses the compatibility of the inflation target system with an economic structure characterized as a post Keynesian one. This structure presents three elements: an IS relation; a relation similar to the Phillips curve but with a post Keynesian content; and an adaptive process of the formation of expectations for the inflation rate. Monetary and incomes policies react to the inflation gap in relation to an inflation target and/or to the output gap in relation to a product target. These reaction functions to monetary and incomes policies close the system and different reaction functions structure different dynamic systems. Expectations depend on past inflation rates and on the inflation target rate: they are adapted in each period, considering the gap between the expected inflation value and the weighted average between the actual inflation and the inflation target. Depending on the gap or gaps that make up each reaction function, the combination of policies can be classified as post Keynesian, orthodox or as a mix of elements from both orientations. A combination of reaction functions capable of generating a convergence of the product and the inflation gaps in relation to the respective targets, in such a way that each policy remains independent from the other, has some degree of compatibility with the structure of the economy. The convergence capacity of each system gauges the compatibility degree between the policies and the structure of the economy. To reach product and inflation targets most models show that the incomes policy must at least react to the inflation gap, whilst the monetary policy must at least react to the product gap. A conventional or institutional character emerges when the inflation targets system succeeds. This guarantees the maintenance of confidence in the process of expectations formation. / Doutorado / Teoria Economica / Doutor em Ciências Econômicas

The submitted thesis deals with the system of retirement pension insurance within the territory of the Czech Republic. In the opening chapters it explains rudimentary terms and other important notions whose - at least sketchy - characterization is necessary for further full comprehension of the complex system of retirement pension benefits. The fifth chapter focusses on elementary terms which make clear the general calculation of retirement pension income. In the thesis different pension incomes (old age pension, disability pension and surviving dependant's pension) are defined by a general introduction into the topic of the respective types of pensions and their caracterization. In some cases there is a brief note about the historical context of the pension, in particular in case of surviving dependants' pensions. The thesis refers to the roots of such an adjustment. Then it is made clear what the legal conditions for the pension claim are, what entitles the benefit duration and when - according to the law - the respective benefit of pension insurance system expires, including the amount and payment of different pension incomes. The thesis includes important judicial verdicts of Czech law courts, principally on the retirement age interpretation, and a significant sentence of the European Court of...

This thesis argues that the full impact of Agricultural Innovation Systems (AIS) driven research, that works to enhance not only agricultural production and productivity but also market linkages cannot be captured effectively using only microeconomic level studies; but rather requires the use of a combination of micro and macro-level analysis. This is because the innovation systems perspective entails the collaboration of different actors across the entire agricultural value chain. Therefore this study aimed to firstly quantify the degree to which AIS driven research impacts upon the livelihood outcomes of rural smallholder farmers. Second, the study aimed to determine the extent to which a combination of macro-economic and agricultural policy shocks impact upon household incomes in the maize-based farming system in Malawi; given macro-micro linkages as strengthened by AIS research. The first objective was tackled by using quasi-experimentation with propensity score matching to establish a valid counterfactual and single differencing to measure impact. The second objective was achieved by using a combination of quantitative and qualitative statistical and econometric tools to delve into the dynamics of the maize market at different levels and to develop a model that is capable of capturing the maize market dynamics. A multi-equation partial equilibrium model of the national maize market was therefore developed and linked in a top-down unidirectional manner to the local maize economy via a price-linkage equation. A non-behavioural arithmetic micro-accounting approach was adopted to estimate household incomes that were linked to the local economy, through which macroeconomic level maize price changes transmit. The results of the study empirically demonstrate that AIS driven research impacts positively upon the livelihood outcomes of rural households. This is demonstrated with participating households exhibiting statistically significant higher production outcomes (upland crop production, maize harvests, value of assets, and value of livestock); household incomes as well as human capital outcomes in some cropping seasons. In addition participating households also had much higher statistically significant fertilizer use prior to the implementation of the fertilizer subsidy program in the country; and statistically significant higher fertilizer use patterns for the first two cropping seasons following the implementation of the subsidy program. Participating households had greater linkages with the market economy which allowed them to take greater advantage of market incentives but which also made them more vulnerable to policy shocks. This study therefore shows that the analysis of the impacts of the paradigm shift in agricultural research towards an innovation system orientation cannot be contained at the household level, as this would lead to the formulation of inadequate policies that do not take into account the effects of greater market linkages of the rural households. Policy implications are that increasing production and productivity and linking farmers to markets may not in itself be enough for sustained livelihood improvement, as the resultant greater linkages to the market economy may be detrimental to household livelihood outcomes in the face of uncoordinated policies. In order for the paradigm shift in agricultural research towards an innovation systems perspective to be effective in sustaining an entrepreneurial culture in rural societies in Africa, there is need to foster the diversification out of agricultural enterprises for income, while supporting productivity improvements for food security. In addition any interventions should be implemented only after systematic analysis of the potential consequences of the resultant enhanced macro-micro linkages. This would help to ensure that there is no mismatch between policies and livelihood improvement strategies. / Thesis (PhD)--University of Pretoria, 2012. / Agricultural Economics, Extension and Rural Development / unrestricted