abstract: The use of solar energy to produce power has increased substantially in the past few decades. In an attempt to provide uninterrupted solar power, production plants may find themselves having to operate the systems at temperatures higher than the operational capacity of the materials used in many of their components, which affects the microstructural and mechanical properties of those materials. Failures in components that have been exposed to these excessive temperatures have been observed during operations in the turbine used by AORA Solar Ltd. A particular component of interest was made of a material similar to the Ni-based superalloy Inconel 718 (IN 718), which was observed to have damage that is believed to have been initiated by Foreign Object Damage (FOD) and worsened by the high temperatures in the turbine. The potential links among the observed failure, FOD and the high temperatures of operation are investigated in this study. IN718 is a precipitation hardened nickel superalloy with resistance to oxidation and ability to withstand high stresses over a wide range of temperatures. Several studies have been conducted to understand IN 718 tensile and fatigue properties at elevated temperatures (600- 950°C). However, this study focuses on understanding the behavior of IN718 with FOD induced by a stream of 50 μm Alumina particles at a velocity of 200 m/s. under high cycle fatigue at an elevated temperature of 1050 °C. Tensile tests were conducted for both as-received and heat treated (1050 °C in air for 8hrs) samples at room and high temperature. Fatigue tests were performed at heat treated samples at 1050 °C for samples with and without ablation. The test conditions were as similar as possible to the conditions in the AORA turbine. The results of the study provide an insight into tensile properties, fatigue properties and FOD. The results indicated a reduction in fatigue life for the samples with ablation damage, where crack nucleation occurred either at the edge or inside the ablation region and multisite cracking was observed under far field stresses that were the same than for pristine samples, which showed single cracks. Fracture surfaces indicate intergranular fracture, with the presence of secondary cracks and a lack of typical fatigue features, e.g., beach marks which was attributed to environmental effects and creep. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Materials Science and Engineering 2017

As ligas a base de Níquel são frequentemente utilizadas na indústria do petróleo devido à elevada resistência mecânica e excelente resistência à corrosão. Neste cenário, a utilização da soldagem como etapa na fabricação de dutos rígidos de grande comprimento é inevitável. Assim, chapas da liga Inconel 625® foram unidas através do processo Friction Stir Welding (FSW). A soldagem foi executada com uma ferramenta de nitreto cúbico de boro policristalino e o inerente desta ferramenta foi analisado. Em um primeiro momento, na seleção de parâmetros de processo, diversas condições de processo foram analisadas para escolha da melhor solda. Após esta etapa, novas juntas soldadas foram produzidas com o parâmetro de processo adequado (velocidade de rotação da ferramenta de 200 rpm e velocidade de avanço de 1 mm/s). A caracterização da superfície de topo da solda foi realizada através da microscopia ótica, microscopia eletrônica de varredura, microdureza e ensaios de dobramento. Defeitos superficiais foram inspecionados com líquidos penetrantes. Além disso, os estados de tensões residuais foram obtidos com a difração de raios-X. Ainda, a resistência à corrosão localizada foi estudada com o ensaio de imersão em cloreto férrico e a determinação da temperatura crítica de pite (conhecida como CPT) Por fim, a susceptibilidade à corrosão intergranular foi avaliada com o ensaio Streicher Test. O processo de soldagem promoveu o refino de grão e o aumento de dureza na solda. As micrografias do metal de base (MB) mostraram carbonetos do tipo MC, M6C, M23C6. Por outro lado, a melhor junta soldada apresentou uma microestrutura livre de defeitos, homogênea, onde não foram percebidos carbonetos do tipo M6C, M23C6 nos contornos de grão, foi aprovada nos ensaios de dobramento, líquidos penetrantes e imersão em FeCl3. Entretanto, ocorreu o um desgaste da ferramenta, mas reduzido e aceitável para esta solda. Tensões residuais longitudinais trativas da ordem de 50 MPa foram observadas na zona de mistura. Considerando o valor médio, o MB alcançou uma CPT de 77 °C, enquanto no centro da solda a CPT foi de 86°C. A taxa de corrosão média alcançada após o ensaio de corrosão intergranular foi de 0,4406 mm/ano, valor que sugere uma boa qualidade da solda. / Nickel based alloys are often used in the oil and gas industry due to their great mechanical strenght as well as excelent corrosion resistance. In this scenario, welding as manufacturing step for long lenght rigid tubes is inevitable. Therefore, Inconel 625® sheets were joined by Friction Stir Welding (FSW). The welding was performed with a Polycrystalline Cubic Boron Nitride (pcBN) tool and the unavoidable tool wear was verified. At first, in the process parameter development step, different process conditions were analyzed for choosing the best welded joint. Afterwards, new welded joints were produced with the suitable process parameter (tool rotational speed of 200 rpm and welding speed of 1 mm/s). Top surface characterization of friction-stir-welded Inconel 625 was carried out by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy, microhardness and bending tests. Surface defects were verified by dye penetrant inspection (DPI). In addition, residual stress states were obtained by X-ray diffraction. Furthermore, localized corrosion resistance was studied by the immersion test in FeCl3 and the critical pitting temperature (CPT) determination. Finally, the susceptibility to intergranular corrosion was evaluated by Streicher Test. FSW process promoted grain refining as well as increased microhardness in the joint Base material micrographs showed different carbides as MC, M6C, M23C6. On the other hand, the best joint presented a sounds weld without defetcs, homogeneous microstructure, grain boundaries free of M6C, M23C6 carbides, approved in bending tests, DPI and the immersion test. However, a tool wear was also noted, but reduced and acceptable for this weld. Tensile longitudinal residual stresses of 50 MPa were observed in the stir zone. As an avarage, the base material CPT was 77 °C, while the CPT was 86 °C at the weld center. The mean corrosion rate after intergranular corrosion test was 0.4406 mm/year, a value which suggests a good weld quality.

As superligas de níquel apresentam boa combinação de resistência à corrosão e à oxidação, resistência mecânica, resistência à fadiga e resistência à fluência. Além disso, apresentam bom desempenho operacional em temperaturas próximas à temperatura de fusão da liga. Estudos apontam à possibilidade de se obter aço carbono revestido com a superliga de níquel Inconel 625 pelo processo de cladeamento e pelo processo de aspersão térmica. A presença de molibdênio na composição química do Inconel625 garante excelente resistência à corrosão por pites e por fresta, enquanto o nióbio confere alta soldabilidade e resistência à corrosão intergranular a essas ligas. O processo de soldagem é amplamente usado em processos industriais e pode ser aplicado em uma junta Inconel-Inconel, podendo modificar alguma propriedade dessa liga. O objetivo do presente trabalho é estudar uma junta soldada de Inconel 625, obtida pelo processo de soldagem por fusão a arco elétrico com o uso de eletrodo revestido ENiCrMo-3, quanto à morfologia estrutural, à dureza e à resistência à corrosão. A morfologia foi avaliada por microscopia óptica, por microscopia eletrônica de varredura e por espectroscopia de energia dispersiva. A propriedade mecânica de dureza foi avaliada a partir do perfil de microdureza Vickers ao longo da junta soldada Para avaliar a resistência à corrosão da junta soldada foram realizados os ensaios de polarização potenciodinâmica, reativação potenciodinâmica de varredura cíclica (norma ASTM G108-94), polarização potenciodinâmica cíclica e ensaio de imersão (norma ASTM G48-03). Também avaliou-se a susceptibilidade à corrosão por pites pela norma ASTM G61-86 a temperatura ambiente e a 90 ºC. Para a polarização potenciodinâmica, três diferentes eletrólitos foram empregados: 3,5% NaCl, 3,5% NaCl + 0,01 mol/L Na2S2O3 e 3,5% NaCl + 1M H2SO4. Os resultados obtidos mostraram que o metal de solda apresenta uma microestrutura dendrítica com precipitados de Nb e de Mo nas regiões interdendríticas. O desempenho quanto à resistência à corrosão foi satisfatório nos meios estudados, considerando as características dessas ligas. No entanto, a junta soldada apresentou maior suscetibilidade à corrosão por pites e à corrosão localizada comparativamente ao metal base. O filme passivo formado no metal base é melhor constituído do que o filme passivo formado no metal de solda. / Nickel superalloys show a good combination of corrosion, oxidation and creep resistance as well as mechanical and fatigue strength. These alloys can operate at temperatures close to their melting temperature. The Inconel 625 has desired characteristics for application in environments that require high corrosion resistance, such as in oil and gas exploitation. Some studies show the possibility of obtaining a coating of Inconel 625 onto carbon steel by the cladding process and by the thermal spray process. The molybdenum content in Inconel 625 ensures excellent resistance to pitting and crevice, while the niobium content gives high weldability to these alloys. The welding process is practically present in all industrial plants, so an Inconel-Inconel joint is unavoidable. However, the welding can lead to changes in the properties of these superalloys. Therefore, the present work aims to study the structural morphology, hardness and corrosion resistance of a welded joint of Inconel 625 obtained by the electric arc fusion welding process with ENICrMo-3 covered electrode. The morphology was evaluated by optical microscopy, scanning electron microscopy and dispersive energy spectroscopy. Hardness was studied by Vickers microhardness profile along the welded joint. In order to evaluate the corrosion resistance of the welded joint, the Potentiodynamic polarization, potentiodynamic cyclic sweep reactivation (ASTM G108-94), cyclic potentiodynamic polarization and immersion test (ASTM G48-03) were performed Also susceptibility to pitting corrosion was assessed by ASTM G61-86 at room temperature and at 90 ° C. Potentiodynamic polarization curves were performed in three different solutions to evaluate the corrosion resistance: 3.5% NaCl, 3.5% NaCl + 0.01 mol / L Na2S2O3 and 3.5% NaCl + 1M H2SO4 The results show that the weld metal has a dendritic microstructure with precipitates of Nb and Mo in the interdendritic regions. The corrosion performance in environments close to the environments of possible applications was satisfactory considering the resistance of these alloys, but the specific welded joint was more susceptibility to corrosion by pits and localized corrosion. The passive film formed in the base metal was better formed than the passive film formed in the welded metal.

abstract: Additive manufacturing (AM) describes an array of methods used to create a 3D object layer by layer. The increasing popularity of AM in the past decade has been due to its demonstrated potential to increase design flexibility, produce rapid prototypes, and decrease material waste. Temporary supports are an inconvenient necessity in many metal AM parts. These sacrificial structures are used to fabricate large overhangs, anchor the part to the build substrate, and provide a heat pathway to avoid warping. Polymers AM has addressed this issue by using support material that is soluble in an electrolyte that the base material is not. In contrast, metals AM has traditionally approached support removal using time consuming, costly methods such as electrical discharge machining or a dremel. This work introduces dissolvable supports to single- and multi-material metals AM. The multi-material approach uses material choice to design a functionally graded material where corrosion is the functionality being varied. The single-material approach is the primary focus of this thesis, leveraging already common post-print heat treatments to locally alter the microstructure near the surface. By including a sensitizing agent in the ageing heat treatment, carbon is diffused into the part decreasing the corrosion resistance to a depth equal to at least half the support thickness. In a properly chosen electrolyte, this layer is easily chemically, or electrochemically removed. Stainless steel 316 (SS316) and Inconel 718 are both investigated to study this process using two popular alloys. The microstructure evolution and corrosion properties are investigated for both. For SS316, the effect of applied electrochemical potential is investigated to describe the varying corrosion phenomena induced, and the effect of potential choice on resultant roughness. In summary, a new approach to remove supports from metal AM parts is introduced to decrease costs and further the field of metals AM by expanding the design space. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Mechanical Engineering 2018

FundaÃÃo Cearense de Apoio ao Desenvolvimento Cientifico e TecnolÃgico / As ligas de nÃquel sÃo de fundamental importÃncia para a indÃstria do PetrÃleo devido a suas propriedades mecÃnicas e a resistÃncia a corrosÃo. A liga Inconel 686 como soldada teve sua microestrutura e suas propriedades mecÃnicas estudadas em diversos trabalhos realizados no laboratÃrio de Engenharia de Soldagem da UFC (Universidade Federal do CearÃ), porÃm nÃo existe na literatura estudos sobre os efeitos do envelhecimento tÃrmico na microestrutura desta liga e na sua resistÃncia a corrosÃo. No presente estudo a liga AWS ER NiCrMo-14 (Inconel 686) foi soldada utilizando o processo TIG com alimentaÃÃo de arame frio e envelhecida em temperaturas de 650 ÂC e 950 ÂC por 10, 50, 100 e 200 horas, com o objetivo de analisar a microestrutura formada apÃs o envelhecimento tÃrmico e as suas consequÃncias na resistÃncia a corrosÃo. Os tratamentos de envelhecimento causaram uma intensa precipitaÃÃo em ambas as temperaturas. No tratamento a 650 ÂC ocorreu uma precipitaÃÃo agulhada, de fase P ou  ricas em molibdÃnio, em torno de precipitados maiores de fase P. Na amostra de 950 ÂC nÃo foi observada a precipitaÃÃo fina em torno da precipitaÃÃo maior, mas tambÃm apresentou-se uma intensa precipitaÃÃo, de atà 13,82 %. Os precipitados foram caracterizados por meio de difraÃÃo de raios X (DRX), anÃlises de microscopia eletrÃnica de varredura (MEV), microscopia eletrÃnica de transmissÃo (MET), difraÃÃo de elÃtrons de Ãrea selecionada (SAD), espectroscopia de energia dispersiva (EDS). Nas amostras de 650 ÂC foram identificados por difraÃÃo de raios X carbonetos do tipo M3C2, M7C3 e fase  e P e por difraÃÃo de elÃtrons foram identificadas fase P. Nas amostras tratadas a 950 ÂC foram identificadas por difraÃÃo de raios X e de elÃtrons as mesmas fases, com exceÃÃo do carboneto do tipo M23C6. Este formou-se em placas prÃximo a interface com o metal de base devido a migraÃÃo de carbono do metal de base (aÃo ASTM A36) para a liga de nÃquel e da alta temperatura que favoreceu sua formaÃÃo. A precipitaÃÃo teve uma grande influÃncia sobre a resistÃncia a corrosÃo das amostras. A liga foi submetida ao ensaio de corrosÃo por imersÃo seguindo a norma ASTM G48 mÃtodo C e algumas amostras apresentaram falhas a temperatura de 40 ÂC. / Nickel based alloys are highly recommended to oil industry due to its mechanical properties and corrosion resistance. The Inconel 686 alloy as-welded had its microstructure and mechanical properties studied in several works in Welding Engineering Laboratory of the UFC (Federal University CearÃ). However, there is no known scientific studies regarding to the effects of thermal aging on the microstructure of this given alloy and its corrosion resistance. This study examines the AWS ER NiCrMo-14 (Inconel 686) alloy in a way that it was TIG welded using cold wire feed and aged at temperatures of 650  C and 950  C for 10, 50, 100 and 200 hours, with the objective to analyze the microstructure formed after aging treatment and its consequences in corrosion resistance. The ageing treatments caused a significant precipitation at both temperatures. In the treatment at 650  C there was a needled precipitation, of P or  phases rich in molybdenum, around larger precipitates. In the sample of 950  C it was not observed the same precipitation as cited above, however, also presented an intense precipitation up to 13.82%. The precipitates were characterized by X-Ray diffraction (XRD) and Scanning Electronic Microscopic (SEM), Transmission Electronic Microscope (TEM), selected area electrons diffraction (SAD) and Energy Dispersive Spectroscopy (EDS). At the 650ÂC samples, it could be possible to identify, by using X-Ray diffraction, both M3C2 and M7C3 type carbides, μ and P phase. By using electron diffraction P phase was identified. At the 950ÂC treated samples, it could be possible to identify, by using X-ray diffraction and electron, the same stages that has been told above, except for the carbide M23C6 type. At this type, plaques were formed close to the interface with the base metal due to carbon migration from base metal (ASTM A36 Steel) to the nickel alloy and to the high temperature, which favors its formation. The precipitation had a great influence on the corrosion resistance of the samples. The alloy has been subjected to the immersion corrosion test according to ASTM G48 C method and anything samples had fail in temperature of 40 ÂC.

Este trabalho tem por objetivo avaliar a capacidade de detecção e dimensionamento de descontinuidades internas em juntas soldadas dissimilares e cladeadas com a utilização da inspeção por ultrassom através da técnica de Phased Array. Este estudo se justifica pela possibilidade da aplicação desses materiais nas atividades de exploração de petróleo no campo offshore com a utilização de dutos rígidos de aço carbono com revestimento interno de Inconel. As juntas circunferenciais foram soldadas com material austenítico e foram realizados ensaios com juntas sem a realização do amanteigamento do bisel e com corpos de provas que receberam camadas de amanteigamento que tem a finalidade de aumentar a resistência à corrosão-fadiga da junta circunferencial. A tubulação soldada tinha como material de base um aço ferrítico API 5L X-52 com revestimento interno de Inconel 625. As descontinuidades foram inseridas nos passes de raiz fabricadas com o processo de soldagem TIG, nos passes de enchimento através do processo por eletrodos revestidos e na região da raiz através do processo de eletroerosão com a finalidade de simular uma falta de fusão na raiz. Para as inspeções foram adotados as varreduras setorial e linear com duas posições do cabeçote em relação à linha de centro da solda. Estas foram realizadas com o intuito de avaliar a capacidade de detecção e dimensionamento das descontinuidades através da utilização de ondas transversais com freqüência de 5 MHz e assim analisar os resultados encontrados para poder viabilizar a aplicação desta técnica como ferramenta de inspeção nestes equipamentos. Análises metalográficas serviram para realizar o dimensionamento real das descontinuidades e caracterizar a micrografia do metal de base, zona afetada pelo calor e metal de solda para poder correlacioná-los com os resultados encontrados nas inspeções por Phased Array. Assim com os resultados encontrados foi possível demonstrar a possibilidade de aplicação da técnica de Phased Array na inspeção das juntas dissimilares e cladeadas. / This work aims to evaluate the detection capability and sizing of internal discontinuities in dissimilar welded and claded joints with the use of Phased Array ultrasonic inspection technique. This study was performed due to the possibility of the application of those materials in the activities of exploration of petroleum in the offshore field with the use of rigid risers of carbon steel with internal covering of Inconel. The girths joints were welded with material austenitic and testing were accomplished with joints without the realization of the buttering of the bevel and with specimens that received layers of buttering that has the purpose of increasing the resistance to the corrosion-fatigue of the girth joint. The welded piping had as base material a ferritic steel API 5L X-52 with internal overlay of Inconel 625. The discontinuities were inserted in the root pass manufactured with the welding process TIG, in the filler pass through the process by covered electrodes and in the area of the root through the electric discharge machining process with the purpose of simulating a lack of fusion in the root. For the inspections the sectorial and linear sweepings were adopted with two positions of the transducer in relation to the line of center of the weld. This was performed with the intention of evaluating the detection capacity and sizing of discontinuities through the use of shear waves frequently of 5 MHz and like this to analyze the results found to make possible the application of this technique as inspection tool in these equipments. Metallographic analyses were to accomplish the real sizing of the discontinuities and to characterize the micrograph of the base metal, affected area for the heat and weld metal to correlate them with the results found in the inspections by Phased Array. Like this with the found results it was possible to demonstrate the possibility of application of Phased Array technique in the inspection of the dissimilar and claded joints.

Additive manufacturing (AM) shows great promise for the manufacturing of next-generation engineering structures by enabling the production of engineered cellular structures, overhangs, and reducing waste. Melt-pool geometry prediction and control is critical for widespread implementation of laser powder bed processes due to speed and accuracy requirements. The process mapping approach used in previous work for different alloys and additive manufacturing processes is applied to the selective laser powder bed process for IN625 and 17-4 stainless steel alloys. The ability to predict the resulting steady state melt-pool geometry in terms of process parameters, specifically power and velocity, is explored in detail numerically and experimentally verified. A finite element model was created that simulates powder at the macro scale. This model correlates well with current experiments in showing that small amounts of powder relative to melt-pool depth have negligible effects on resulting geometry. Results indicate that the effect of powder may be negligible when comparing steady state widths of the no powder and one layer of powder cases. The work in this thesis investigates the effect of powder on the resulting steady-state melt-pool geometries for IN625 and 17-4 alloys. This analysis has been extended to the production of overhanging and cellular structures. The successful analysis will allow for better predictions and possible correction for cellular structure production issues as well as overhanging features.

The selective laser sintering (SLS) process or the additive manufacturing (AM) enables the construction of a three-dimensional object through melting and solidification of metal powder. The primary advantage of AM over the conventional process is providing the manufacturing flexibility, especially for highly complicated products. The quality of AM products depends upon various processing parameters such as laser power, laser scanning velocity, laser scanning pattern, layer thickness, and hatch spacing. The improper selection of these parameters would lead to parts with defects, severe distortion, and even cracking. I herein perform the numerical and experimental analysis to investigate the interplay between processing parameters and the defect generation. The analysis aims to resolve issues at two different scales, micro-scale and product-scale. At the micro-scale, while the numerical model is developed to investigate the interaction of the laser and materials in the AM process, its advantages and disadvantages compared to an analytical approach (Rosenthal’s equation), which provides a quicker thermal solution, are thoroughly studied. Additionally, numerical results have been verified by series of experiments. Based on the analysis, it is found that the simultaneous consideration of multiple processing parameters could be achieved using the energy density. Moreover, together with existing criteria, a processing window is numerically developed as a guideline for AM users to avoid common defects at this scale including the lack of fusion, balling effect, and over-melting. Thermal results at a micro-scale are extended as an input to determine the residual stress initiation in AM products. The effect of energy density and substrate temperature on a residual stress magnitude is explored. Results show that the stress magnitude within a layer is a strong function of the substrate temperature, where a higher substrate temperature results in a lower stress. Moreover, the stress formation due to a layer’s addition is studied, in which the stress relaxation at locations away from a top surface is observed. Nevertheless, even though the micro-scale analysis can resolve some common defects in AM, it is not capable of predicting product-scale responses such as residual stress development and entire product’s distortion. As a result, the multiscale modeling platform is developed for the numerical investigation at the product level. Three thermal models at various scales are interactively used to yield an effective thermal development calculation at a product-scale. In addition, the influence of the multiple layers, energy densities and scanning patterns on the residual stress formation has been addressed, which leads to the prediction of the residual stress development during the fabrication. The distortion of products due to the residual stress can be described by the product-scale model. Furthermore, among many processing parameters, the energy input and the scanning length are found to be important factors, which could be controlled to achieve the residual stress reduction in AM products. An optimal choice of a scanning length and energy input can reduce an as-built residual stress magnitude by almost half of typically encountered values. Ultimately, the present work aims to illustrate the integration of the computational method as tools to provide manufacturing qualification for part production by the AM process.

A pipe consisting of Inconel 600 welded to grade 106-B Carbon-Steel using Inconel 182 weld filler is used to transport heavy water in nuclear reactors. A confidential report concluded that cracking is one of the problems these pipes are currently facing. Before cracking can be fully understood the mechanical properties of the weld must be determined. This thesis analyzed the pipe at various length-scales using optical microscopy, micro-hardness testing, small and large scale tensile testing and digital image correlation (DIC). This thesis successfully achieved it goals of determining the mechanical properties and creating a model of the Inconel dissimilar metal weld. It partially met the goal of observing fracture mechanisms as it was able to observe fracture in tensile samples but was not able to successfully track crack growth.

The challenges in the deposition of dissimilar materials are mainly related to the large differences in the physical and chemical properties of the deposited and substrate materials. These differences readily cause residual stresses and intermetallic phases. This has led to the development of functionally graded materials which exhibit spatial variation in composition. Laser direct metal deposition due to its flexibility, it offers wide variety of dissimilar and functionally graded materials deposition. Despite considerable advances in process optimization, there is a rather limited understanding of the role of metallurgical factors in the laser deposition of dissimilar and functionally graded alloys. The aim of this work is to understand and explain mechanisms occurring in diode laser deposition of dissimilar materials and functionally graded materials. The first part of this work addressed diode laser deposition of Inconel 718 nickel alloy to Ti-6Al-4V titanium alloy. Here, the effect of laser pulse parameters and powder mass flow rates on the stress formation and cracking has evaluated by experiment and numerical techniques. Results showed that the clad thickness was an important factor affecting the cracking behaviour. In the second part of this study, an image analysis technique has been developed to measure the surface disturbance and the melt pool cross section size during laser direct metal deposition of Inconel 718 on a Ti-6Al-4V thin wall. It was noted that under tested conditions the overall melt pool area increased with the increase in powder flow rate; the powder carrier gas flow rates also seemed to play important roles in determining the melt pool size. In the third part of this study, a parametric study on the development of Inconel 718 and Stainless steel 316L continuously graded structure has been carried out. Results suggested that microstructure and other mechanical properties can be selectively controlled across the deposited wall. The results presented in this dissertation can be used as a metallurgical basis for further development of dissimilar and functionally graded manufacturing using LDMD technique, guiding future manufacturing engineers to produce structurally sound and microstructurally desirable laser deposited samples.