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Yes / In this paper we explored three areas: decision making and information seeking, the relationship between information seeking and uncertainty, and the role of expertise in influencing information use. This was undertaken in the context of a qualitative study into decision making in the initial stages of emergency response to major incidents. The research took an interpretive approach in which activity theory is used as an analytical framework. The research provides further evidence that the context of the activity and individual differences influence the choice of decision mode and associated information behavior. We also established that information is often not used to resolve uncertainty in decision making and indeed information is often sought and used after the decision is made to justify the decision. Finally, we point to the significance of both expertise and confidence in understanding information behavior. The contribution of the research to existing theoretical frameworks is discussed and a modified version of Wilson's problem-solving model is proposed.

Predation is a major source of mortality, resulting in strong selection on strategies to avoid being captured. Individuals have access to multiple sources of information on predation risk: they can detect danger directly themselves, and they can attend to behavioural cues or warning signals produced by others. Rapid responses are vital when hunted by aerial predators in particular, as split-second decisions can mean the difference between life and death. I studied New Holland honeyeaters, Phylidonyris novaehollandiae, as a model system to examine how alarm calls encode information about danger and to understand how this information is used by receivers. In Chapter 2, observational data showed that these honeyeaters produce multi-element, aerial alarm calls in response to flying threats. Male honeyeaters had more opportunities to detect threats than did females and showed a greater propensity to alarm call when presented with gliding model predators. In Chapter 3, a combination of observational data and model presentations demonstrated that aerial alarm calls encode urgency in both the number of elements, with more dangerous threats receiving more elements, and the acoustic structure of the first element. Playback presentations of alarm calls and video recordings to measure responses revealed that honeyeaters made extremely fast decisions about fleeing to cover based on the acoustic structure of the first alarm element, while the number of elements determined for how long they hid. These two chapters demonstrate that receivers have rapid access to detailed information about the type and degree of danger from conspecific alarm calls. In Chapter 4, I investigated how birds integrate personal information about danger with social information from alarm calls. Perched birds were faster to detect model predators than feeding birds, suggesting that they have greater access to personal information. Consistent with this, perched birds were less likely to flee to cover in response to alarm playbacks than foraging birds. Birds also fled less in response to less urgent social information, such as playbacks of more distant alarm calls, and less relevant social information, in the form of calls from another species with overlapping but not identical threats. In Chapter 5, I tested how honeyeaters value social information about danger derived from single versus multiple sources, both within and across species. Birds paid attention to the number of independent signallers when assessing information from both conspecifics and heterospecifics, responding more strongly to playbacks of alarm calls from two sources than a single source, but they also moderated their responses according to signal relevance. Together, these results show that birds make flexible decisions about danger by integrating information from multiple sources and assessing its quality, allowing them to mitigate the costs of fleeing to false, or irrelevant, alarms while taking advantage of the multitude of information provided by the prey community's neighbourhood watch.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Although registered nurses have a plethora of information sources available to assist them in making clinical decisions, how this information informs such decisions is not well understood. Through the work undertaken in this thesis a deeper understanding of information use in clinical practice is developed. Information use in clinical uncertainty is explored, specifically in the context of making decisions about enteral feeding practices within critical care environments. Instrumental case studies were used to access the information use processes of registered nurses working in an intensive care unit. Two case sites (a Level III intensive care unit in metropolitan teaching hospital and a Level II intensive care unit in a district hospital) were selected for the purpose of theoretical replication. Data were collected to inform specific issues. Concurrent verbal protocols (think aloud), observation and retrospective probing were used to explore documented clinical decisions and the information used to inform those decisions. Q sorting was used to determine the accessibility and usefulness of information available to participants and focus groups were used to explore senior nurse clinician’s perceptions of the authority of the identified information sources. A synthesis of findings from the two case sites highlighted three key issues. First, natural testimony (the use of personal communication to obtain information) was privileged over other, more formal sources of information however the veracity of the information obtained through natural testimony was not explicitly assessed. Registered nurses relied on the credibility of the person providing the information, leaving the information itself unchallenged. The clear reliance on information accessed through natural testimony, but the evident lack of critical evaluation of information obtained in this way, indicates a need for the development of strategies for the critical assessment of the accuracy of this clinical information. Second, the findings highlighted nurses’ use of clinical inquiry. Nurses used clinical inquiry to resolve clinical uncertainty as well as for logistic reasons. Participant’s use of inquiry was influenced by their approach to work, the impact of both organisational and personal perspectives on the perceived value of their work; and by models of clinical leadership where an investment in relational capital was considered a strategy to positively influence a culture of inquiry. Although organisational documents which are designed to ensure quality and consistency of patient care as required by current clinical governance strategies were considered useful, these document were not widely used as a primary source of information. The use of organisational documents, as well as the need to practice in concert with such documents, was identified as a factor negatively impacting on the development and support of nurses’ use of clinical inquiry. Third, findings addressed the usefulness of information for clinical decisions and the resolution of clinical uncertainty. The usefulness of information was influenced by its relevance to a clinical question or information deficit, and by the media used to convey the information. In general, print based media was considered more useful than other forms such as electronic documents. While original research was not considered useful, nurses valued research-based practice and responded positively to incorporating research into practice, particularly if research was pre-appraised by colleagues who were able to disseminate research findings to the clinical area and facilitate its use in clinical practice. This case study indicates that information use is less about individuals and the clinical context in which they are making decisions, and more about the social, cultural and organisational influences that shape decision making, and the information selected to support those decisions. The preference for natural testimony as information in decision making may, on first consideration, be viewed as undesirable in a work context that relies on accurate and consistent documentation. Determining the credibility of the information provider and the accuracy of the information itself is also challenging in an environment where this type of information and the approach to accessing it is selected for its ease of accessibility and the speed at which it can be applied. Yet, the pervasiveness with which nurses rely on others for information suggests verbal testimony is important in the context of clinical practice and highlights the need to develop a clearer understanding of why nurses privilege this information. Therefore verbal testimony must be considered carefully as a strategy for providing information, particularly research-based information and this study therefore highlights the need to develop strategies that enable those providing information to convey their expertise as a clinician as well as a user and provider of information. The organisational culture and work structures currently in place in Australia are unlikely to undergo significant change in the coming years, therefore their impact on information use warrants careful consideration. The nursing profession and the higher education sector aim to foster through inquiry, the independent, evidence-based practice of registered nurses. Health care organisations also highly value independent, evidence-based practice but also promote patient safety through use of current clinical governance strategies. While these two goals can be complimentary they also create tension when clinical governance strategies stifle inquiry and independent decision making of registered nurses. Ultimately, the current health care system in Australia and the wider community expect an evidence base for practice together with clinical governance strategies that promote safe practice. Nurses, as part, of this system must be accountable for both in the context of their clinical practice. We therefore need with some urgency to determine how to best balance these complementary and simultaneously competing ideals.

Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) / Although registered nurses have a plethora of information sources available to assist them in making clinical decisions, how this information informs such decisions is not well understood. Through the work undertaken in this thesis a deeper understanding of information use in clinical practice is developed. Information use in clinical uncertainty is explored, specifically in the context of making decisions about enteral feeding practices within critical care environments. Instrumental case studies were used to access the information use processes of registered nurses working in an intensive care unit. Two case sites (a Level III intensive care unit in metropolitan teaching hospital and a Level II intensive care unit in a district hospital) were selected for the purpose of theoretical replication. Data were collected to inform specific issues. Concurrent verbal protocols (think aloud), observation and retrospective probing were used to explore documented clinical decisions and the information used to inform those decisions. Q sorting was used to determine the accessibility and usefulness of information available to participants and focus groups were used to explore senior nurse clinician’s perceptions of the authority of the identified information sources. A synthesis of findings from the two case sites highlighted three key issues. First, natural testimony (the use of personal communication to obtain information) was privileged over other, more formal sources of information however the veracity of the information obtained through natural testimony was not explicitly assessed. Registered nurses relied on the credibility of the person providing the information, leaving the information itself unchallenged. The clear reliance on information accessed through natural testimony, but the evident lack of critical evaluation of information obtained in this way, indicates a need for the development of strategies for the critical assessment of the accuracy of this clinical information. Second, the findings highlighted nurses’ use of clinical inquiry. Nurses used clinical inquiry to resolve clinical uncertainty as well as for logistic reasons. Participant’s use of inquiry was influenced by their approach to work, the impact of both organisational and personal perspectives on the perceived value of their work; and by models of clinical leadership where an investment in relational capital was considered a strategy to positively influence a culture of inquiry. Although organisational documents which are designed to ensure quality and consistency of patient care as required by current clinical governance strategies were considered useful, these document were not widely used as a primary source of information. The use of organisational documents, as well as the need to practice in concert with such documents, was identified as a factor negatively impacting on the development and support of nurses’ use of clinical inquiry. Third, findings addressed the usefulness of information for clinical decisions and the resolution of clinical uncertainty. The usefulness of information was influenced by its relevance to a clinical question or information deficit, and by the media used to convey the information. In general, print based media was considered more useful than other forms such as electronic documents. While original research was not considered useful, nurses valued research-based practice and responded positively to incorporating research into practice, particularly if research was pre-appraised by colleagues who were able to disseminate research findings to the clinical area and facilitate its use in clinical practice. This case study indicates that information use is less about individuals and the clinical context in which they are making decisions, and more about the social, cultural and organisational influences that shape decision making, and the information selected to support those decisions. The preference for natural testimony as information in decision making may, on first consideration, be viewed as undesirable in a work context that relies on accurate and consistent documentation. Determining the credibility of the information provider and the accuracy of the information itself is also challenging in an environment where this type of information and the approach to accessing it is selected for its ease of accessibility and the speed at which it can be applied. Yet, the pervasiveness with which nurses rely on others for information suggests verbal testimony is important in the context of clinical practice and highlights the need to develop a clearer understanding of why nurses privilege this information. Therefore verbal testimony must be considered carefully as a strategy for providing information, particularly research-based information and this study therefore highlights the need to develop strategies that enable those providing information to convey their expertise as a clinician as well as a user and provider of information. The organisational culture and work structures currently in place in Australia are unlikely to undergo significant change in the coming years, therefore their impact on information use warrants careful consideration. The nursing profession and the higher education sector aim to foster through inquiry, the independent, evidence-based practice of registered nurses. Health care organisations also highly value independent, evidence-based practice but also promote patient safety through use of current clinical governance strategies. While these two goals can be complimentary they also create tension when clinical governance strategies stifle inquiry and independent decision making of registered nurses. Ultimately, the current health care system in Australia and the wider community expect an evidence base for practice together with clinical governance strategies that promote safe practice. Nurses, as part, of this system must be accountable for both in the context of their clinical practice. We therefore need with some urgency to determine how to best balance these complementary and simultaneously competing ideals.

Many animals including marine mammals and several seabird species dive in large groups, but the impacts that social interactions can have on diving behaviour are poorly understood. There are several potential benefits to social diving, such as access to social information or reduced predation risk. In this body of research I explore the use of social information by groups of diving animals by studying the behaviour of European shags (Phalacrocorax aristotelis) diving in “foraging rafts” in the Isles of Scilly. Using GPS tracking I establish where shags regularly forage in relation to bathymetry and areas where foraging rafts frequently formed. Using these data I show that the foraging ranges of different colonies overlap and that foraging ranges of individual shags are often predictable. This suggests that social information will be of less value while searching for foraging patches. However, using observational studies to further explore the conditions and areas in which foraging rafts formed, I show that advantages such as anti-predation or hydrodynamic benefits are unlikely to be the main drivers of rafting behaviour in the Scillies. I therefore suggest that access to social information from conspecifics at a foraging patch may be one of the main benefits diving in groups. Using a dynamic programming model I show that individuals diving in a group benefit from using social information, even when unable to assess conspecific foraging success. Finally I use video analysis to extract the positions and diving behaviour of individuals within a foraging raft and compare this to simulated data of collective motion and diving behaviour. The results of these studies indicate that an individual being able to utilise dives of conspecifics to inform their own diving decisions may be one of the main advantages of social diving.

Yes / The resilience of systems derives from many inputs, relating both to design and to operational planning. In the latter context the role and effective functioning of the ‘blue light’ emergency services is often critical. The judgements and decisions that have to be made are complex and time-constrained, often undertaken before all the critical information that might be wanted is available. Recent developments in decision research, notably the on-going dual process debate, suggest that the process of decision making adopted is often more complex than had previously been appreciated and strongly linked to both context and individual factors, notably expertise. In the light of such developments, this paper presents an empirical study of emergency responders working in realistic, non-laboratory conditions. It argues that recent moves to recognise the need to support, through the way in which information is provided, more intuitive as well as analytic modes of thinking in decision support are timely and that an important research agenda exists linking decision support design with a fuller understanding of exactly how individuals make their decisions in emergency conditions. / This research was funded by ESRC and 1Spatial, a Cambridge-based software company specialising in high volume, business critical data.

Yes / In expert knowledge elicitation (EKE) for forecasting, the perceived credibility of an expert is likely to affect the weighting attached to their advice. Four experiments have investigated the extent to which the implicit weighting depends on the advisor’s experienced (reflecting the accuracy of their past forecasts), or presumed (based on their status) credibility. Compared to a control group, advice from a source with a high experienced credibility received a greater weighting, but having a low level of experienced credibility did not reduce the weighting. In contrast, a high presumed credibility did not increase the weighting relative to a control group, while a low presumed credibility decreased it. When there were opportunities for the two types of credibility to interact, a high experienced credibility tended to eclipse the presumed credibility if the advisees were non-experts. However, when the advisees were professionals, both the presumed and experienced credibility of the advisor were influential in determining the weight attached to the advice.

As export competition becomes more intense and export success vital for survival (Katsikeas, 1994), so the effective processing and use of information regarding the international environment becomes a critical prerequisite for gaining competitive advantage (Leonidou and Theodosiou, 2004). Symbolic use of information is one type of information use, which although relatively underexplored to date, may be the most prevalent form of information use within organisations – especially in an export setting (Beyer and Trice, 1982). Symbolic use occurs when information is used for purposes other than the ones which led to its collection (Menon and Varadarajan, 1992). Symbolic use of information has been conceptualised as a multi-dimensional construct encompassing various dimensions (Vyas and Souchon, 2003). Examples include “exporters that engage in distorting market research findings, taking conclusions out of context, disclosing only the findings that confirm an executive‟s predetermined position or consciously ignoring information” (Toften and Olsen, 2004, p. 106). Symbolic use can also legitimate decisions reached on the basis of intuition or managerial assumptions (Vyas and Souchon, 2003). Although conceptual propositions of the potential relationship between each of the symbolic use dimensions and performance exist (Vyas and Souchon 2003), no empirical research has yet been undertaken. As a result, little is known about how and why symbolic use of export information may affect export performance, and under what circumstances. Furthermore, reliable and valid measures for each one of the symbolic use dimensions are absent in the literature. The purpose of this thesis is to fill in these research gaps. In so doing, a combination of both qualitative and quantitative methods is employed. The exploratory phase takes the form of in depth interviews with export decision makers in the UK. The data collected in this exploratory phase are analysed through the use of within-case and cross-case displays as per Miles and Huberman (1994) and are used not just for hypothesis development, but also to identify potential outcomes of using information symbolically in specific ways and to create pools of items for the development of measures of symbolic use. (Continues...).

Social learning plays a valuable role in the lives of many animal taxa, sometimes allowing individuals to bypass the costs of personal exploration. The ubiquity of this behaviour may arise from the fact that learning from others is often underpinned by simple learning processes that also enable individuals to learn asocially. Insects have proven to be particularly valuable models for investigating parsimonious hypotheses with regards to social learning processes, due to their small brain sizes and the prevalence of social information use in their life histories. In this thesis, I use social insects to further investigate the mechanisms underlying more complex social learning behaviours and explore the circumstances under which social information use manifests. In the first chapter, I investigate the proximate mechanisms underlying social learning and demonstrate that even seemingly complex social learning behaviours can arise through simple associative learning processes. In Chapter two, I investigate whether bees are more predisposed to learning from conspecific cues and discover that social information is learnt to a greater extent than information originating from non-social sources. In Chapter four, I demonstrate that classical conditioning also underpins learning from evolved social signals in honeybees. Finally, I investigate whether social information is used adaptively by bumblebees: Chapter three demonstrates that joining behaviour in free-flying bees is contingent upon whether flowers are familiar or not, and in Chapter six, I show that when social information is costly to acquire, bees are more likely to rely on social information to make foraging decisions. Taken as a whole, my findings suggest that bees may be specially adapted for receiving social information, but the ability to learn from others arises through general associative learning mechanisms.