Mechanistic studies on three different ruthenium-based catalysts have been performed. The catalysts have in common that they have been employed in hydrogen transfer reactions involving alcohols and ketones, amines and imines or both. Bäckvall’s catalyst, η5-(Ph5C5)Ru(CO)2Cl, finds its application as racemization catalyst in dynamic kinetic resolution, where racemic alcohols are converted to enantiopure acetates in high yields. The mechanism of the racemization has been investigated and both alkoxide and alkoxyacyl intermediates have been characterized by NMR spectroscopy and in situ FT-IR measurements. The presence of acyl intermediates supports a mechanism via CO assistance. Substantial support for coordination of the substrate during the racemization cycle is provided, including exchange studies with both external and internal potential ketone traps. We also detected an unexpected alkoxycarbonyl complex from 5-hydroxy-1-hexene, which has the double bond coordinated to ruthenium. Shvo’s catalyst, [Ru2(CO)4(μ-H)(C4Ph4COHOCC4Ph4)] is a powerful catalyst for transfer hydrogenation as well as for dynamic kinetic resolution. The mechanism of this catalyst is still under debate, even though a great number of studies have been published during the past decade. In the present work, the mechanism of the reaction with imines has been investigated. Exchange studies with both an external and an internal amine as potential traps have been performed and the results can be explained by a stepwise inner-sphere mechanism. However, if there is e.g. a solvent cage effect, the results can also be explained by an outer-sphere mechanism. We have found that there is no cage effect in the reduction of a ketone containing a potential internal amine trap. If the mechanism is outer-sphere, an explanation as to why the solvent cage effect is much stronger in the case of imines than ketones is needed. Noyori’s catalyst, [p-(Me2CH)C6H4Me]RuH(NH2CHPhCHPhNSO2C6H4-p-CH3), has successfully been used to produce chiral alcohols and amines via transfer hydrogenation. The present study shows that the mechanism for the reduction of imines is different from that of ketones and aldehydes. Acidic activation of the imine was found necessary and an ionic mechanism was proposed.

Late transition metal complexes of silver(I), rhodium(I), ruthenium(II), palladium(II) and platinum(II) containing a nitrile-functionalized N-heterocyclic carbene ligand (C-CN) were prepared. The nitrile group on the C–CN ligand was shown to undergo hydrolysis under basic conditions, leading to a silver(I) carbene complex with a primary-amido functional group, and a trimetallic complex of palladium(II) with a partially hydrolyzed C–N–N–C donor ligand. The reduction of a nitrile-functionalized imidazolium salt in the presence of nickel(II) chloride under mild conditions yielded an axially chiral square-planar nickel(II) complex containing a unique primary-amino functionalized N-heterocyclic carbene ligand (C-NH2). A transmetalation reaction moved this chelating C–NH2 ligand from nickel(II) to ruthenium(II), osmium(II), and iridium(III), yielding important catalysts for the hydrogenation of polar double bonds. The ruthenium(II) complex, [Ru(p-cymene)(C–NH2)Cl]PF6 catalyzed the transfer and H2-hydrogenation of ketones. The bifunctional hydride complex, [Ru(p-cymene)(C–NH2)H]PF6, which contains a Ru–H/N–H couple showed no activity under catalytic conditions unless when activated by a base. The outer-sphere mechanism involving bifunctional catalysis of ketone reduction is disfavored according to experimental and theoretical studies and an inner-sphere mechanism is proposed involving the decoordination of the amine donor from the C–NH2 ligand. The ruthenium(II) complex [RuCp*(C–NH2)py]PF6 showed higher activity than the iridium(III) complex [IrCp*(C–NH2)Cl]PF6 in the hydrogenation of ketones. This ruthenium(II) complex also catalyzes the hydrogenation of an aromatic ester, a ketimine, and the hydrogenolysis of styrene oxide. We proposed an alcohol-assisted outer sphere bifunctional mechanism for both systems based on experimental findings and theoretical calculations. The cationic iridium(III) hydride complex, [IrCp*(C–NH2)H]PF6 , was prepared and this failed to react with a ketone in the absence of base. The crucial role of the alkoxide base was demonstrated in the activation of this hydride complex in catalysis. Calculations support the proposal that the base deprotonates the amine group of this hydride complex and triggers the migration of the hydride to the η5-Cp* ring producing a neutral iridium(I) amido complex. This system contains an active Ir–H/N–H couple required for the outer sphere hydrogenation of ketones in the bifunctional mechanism.

Late transition metal complexes of silver(I), rhodium(I), ruthenium(II), palladium(II) and platinum(II) containing a nitrile-functionalized N-heterocyclic carbene ligand (C-CN) were prepared. The nitrile group on the C–CN ligand was shown to undergo hydrolysis under basic conditions, leading to a silver(I) carbene complex with a primary-amido functional group, and a trimetallic complex of palladium(II) with a partially hydrolyzed C–N–N–C donor ligand. The reduction of a nitrile-functionalized imidazolium salt in the presence of nickel(II) chloride under mild conditions yielded an axially chiral square-planar nickel(II) complex containing a unique primary-amino functionalized N-heterocyclic carbene ligand (C-NH2). A transmetalation reaction moved this chelating C–NH2 ligand from nickel(II) to ruthenium(II), osmium(II), and iridium(III), yielding important catalysts for the hydrogenation of polar double bonds. The ruthenium(II) complex, [Ru(p-cymene)(C–NH2)Cl]PF6 catalyzed the transfer and H2-hydrogenation of ketones. The bifunctional hydride complex, [Ru(p-cymene)(C–NH2)H]PF6, which contains a Ru–H/N–H couple showed no activity under catalytic conditions unless when activated by a base. The outer-sphere mechanism involving bifunctional catalysis of ketone reduction is disfavored according to experimental and theoretical studies and an inner-sphere mechanism is proposed involving the decoordination of the amine donor from the C–NH2 ligand. The ruthenium(II) complex [RuCp*(C–NH2)py]PF6 showed higher activity than the iridium(III) complex [IrCp*(C–NH2)Cl]PF6 in the hydrogenation of ketones. This ruthenium(II) complex also catalyzes the hydrogenation of an aromatic ester, a ketimine, and the hydrogenolysis of styrene oxide. We proposed an alcohol-assisted outer sphere bifunctional mechanism for both systems based on experimental findings and theoretical calculations. The cationic iridium(III) hydride complex, [IrCp*(C–NH2)H]PF6 , was prepared and this failed to react with a ketone in the absence of base. The crucial role of the alkoxide base was demonstrated in the activation of this hydride complex in catalysis. Calculations support the proposal that the base deprotonates the amine group of this hydride complex and triggers the migration of the hydride to the η5-Cp* ring producing a neutral iridium(I) amido complex. This system contains an active Ir–H/N–H couple required for the outer sphere hydrogenation of ketones in the bifunctional mechanism.

Βασικός στόχος της παρούσας διατριβής είναι η αποσαφήνιση του τρόπου της διεπιφανειακής εναπόθεσης του νικελίου στην επιφάνεια της τιτάνιας, η οποία λαμβάνει χώρα στη διεπιφάνεια “τιτάνιας / ηλεκτρολυτικού διαλύματος”. Ο στόχος αυτός επιτεύχθηκε μέσω μιας κατάλληλης θεωρητικής και υπολογιστικής επεξεργασίας δεδομένων, που προέρχονται από την εφαρμογή ηλεκτροχημικών και φασματοσκοπικών τεχνικών, την εκτέλεση πειραμάτων προσρόφησης, καθώς επίσης και σε ab – initio υπολογισμούς για την εξακρίβωση της δομής των συμπλόκων εσωτερικής σφαίρας τα οποία σχηματίζονται και των συγκεντρώσεών τους στη διεπιφάνεια. Δείγματα βιομηχανικής τιτάνιας (Degussa, P 25) πλούσιας σε ανατάση χρησιμοποιήθηκαν για το σκοπό αυτό. Η μελέτη πραγματοποιήθηκε για μια ευρεία περιοχή παραμέτρων εμποτισμού και πιο συγκεκριμένα τιμές pH, ιονικής ισχύος και συγκέντρωσης του υδατικού συμπλόκου [Ni(H2O)6]2+ στο διάλυμα. Μεταβάλλοντας τις παραμέτρους αυτές ρυθμίστηκε η επιφανειακή συγκέντρωση των ιόντων Ni(II). Χρησιμοποιήθηκε μια πληθώρα μεθοδολογιών στηριγμένες σε δεδομένα εναπόθεσης, μετρήσεις τιμών pH, ποτενσιομετρικές τιτλοδοτήσεις μάζας και πειράματα μικροηλεκτροφόρησης σε συνδυασμό με φασματοσκοπία διάχυτης ανάκλασης (DRS). Ο συνδυασμός όλων των παραπάνω φαίνεται πως υποδεικνύει το σχηματισμό μονοπυρηνικών / ολιγοπυρηνικών συμπλόκων εσωτερικής σφαίρας κατά την εναπόθεση των ιόντων [Ni(H2O)6]2+ στη διεπιφάνεια “τιτάνιας / ηλεκτρολυτικού διαλύματος”. Η μοντελοποίηση της διαδικασίας εναπόθεσης η οποία βασίστηκε στα προαναφερθέντα πειραματικά αποτελέσματα, αποκάλυψε την ακριβή δομή αυτών των επιφανειακών συμπλόκων και κατέστησε δυνατό τον προσδιορισμό της κατανομής των εναποτιθέμενων ειδών και ειδικότερα των σχετικών τους συγκεντρώσεων για διάφορες τιμές της επιφανειακής συγκέντρωσης Ni(II). Στο συμπαγές τμήμα της διεπιφάνειας “τιτάνιας / ηλεκτρολυτικού διαλύματος” σχηματίζονται τρία μονοπυρηνικά σύμπλοκα εσωτερικής σφαίρας: ένα μονο - υποκατεστημένο, δι - υδρολυμένο σύμπλοκο πάνω από τις ακραίες οξο - ομάδες ανταλλάσοντας ένα υδατικό υποκαταστάτη με ένα επιφανειακό άτομο οξυγόνου (διαμόρφωση TiO), ένα δι - υποκατεστημένο, δι - υδρολυμένο σύμπλοκο πάνω από δύο ακραίες γειτονικές οξο - ομάδες ανταλλάσοντας δύο υδατικούς υποκαταστάτες με δύο επιφανειακά άτομα οξυγόνου (διαμόρφωση TiO - TiO) και ένα δι - υποκατεστημένο μη υδρολυμένο σύμπλοκο πάνω από μία ακραία και μία γεφυρωμένη οξο - ομάδα (διαμόρφωση Ti2O - TiO). Επιπρόσθετα, σχηματίζονται ένα διπυρηνικό και ένα τριπυρηνικό σύμπλοκο εσωτερικής σφαίρας κατά την εναπόθεση των ιόντων [Ni(H2O)6]2+ στο συμπαγές τμήμα της διεπιφάνειας “τιτάνιας / ηλεκτρολυτικού διαλύματος”. Στην πρώτη περίπτωση η θέση υποδοχής συμπεριλαμβάνει μία γεφυρωμένη και δύο ακραίες οξο - ομάδες (διαμόρφωση Ti2O-TiO—TiO), ενώ στη δεύτερη περίπτωση δύο γεφυρωμένες και τρεις ακραίες οξο - ομάδες (διαμόρφωση Ti2O-TiO—TiO—TiO-Ti2O). Η διαμόρφωση TiO κυριαρχεί σε όλο το εύρος της περιοχής επιφανειακών συγκεντρώσεων το οποίο μελετήθηκε. Η συνεισφορά των διαμορφώσεων TiO - TiO και Ti2O - TiO είναι επίσης σημαντική σε πολύ χαμηλές τιμές επιφανειακής συγκέντρωσης Ni(II), μειώνεται όμως σε μεγάλο βαθμό καθώς αυτή αυξάνεται. Οι σχετικές επιφανειακές συγκεντρώσεις των διαμορφώσεων Ti2O-TiO--TiO και Ti2O-TiO—TiO--TiO-Ti2O αρχικά αυξάνουν με την επιφανειακή συγκέντρωση Ni(II) και μετά μένουν πρακτικά σταθερές. Η προαναφερθείσα κατανομή των εναποτιθέμενων ειδών στη διεπιφάνεια εξηγήθηκε με τη χρήση στερεοχημικών όρων. Επιπρόσθετα, η δομή των επιφανειακών συμπλόκων εσωτερικής σφαίρας και η κατανομή αυτή είναι σε γενική συμφωνία με εκείνες οι οποίες προβλέφθηκαν με την εκτέλεση ημιεμπειρικών κβαντομηχανικών υπολογισμών για την εναπόθεση του Ni στο TiO2. Το μοντέλο εναπόθεσης το οποίο αναπτύχθηκε περιέγραψε πολύ καλά τις adsorption edges, τις τιτλοδοτήσεις “πρωτονίου - ιόντος” και τις ισόθερμες εναπόθεσης, ενισχύοντας επιπλέον την αξιοπιστία και ορθότητά του. / The main goal of this work is the elucidation of the mode of interfacial deposition of nickel on the surface of titania, which takes place in the “titania / electrolytic solution” interface. This goal was achieved through the use of several methodologies combined with spectroscopic techniques, as well as ab – initio calculations in order to determine the structure of the inner sphere complexes formed as well as their relative interfacial concentrations. Samples of titania (Degussa, P 25) rich in anatase were used for this purpose. The study was performed over a quite wide range of impregnation parameters namely pH, ionic strength and concentration of the [Ni(H2O)6]2+ aqua complex in the solution. By changing these parameters, the Ni(II) surface concentration was regulated. Several methodologies based on deposition data, pH measurements, potentiometric mass titrations and microelectrophoresis have been used in conjunction with diffuse reflectance spectroscopy. These suggested the formation of mono - nuclear / oligo - nuclear inner sphere complexes upon deposition of the [Ni(H2O)6]+2 ions at the “titania / electrolytic solution” interface. The modelling of the deposition process based on the aforementioned experimental results revealed the exact structure of these surface complexes and allowed the determination of their relative concentrations at various values of Ni(II) surface concentration (interfacial speciation). Three mono-nuclear inner sphere complexes are formed at the compact layer of the “titania / electolytic solution” interface; one mono - substituted, di - hydrolyzed complex above the terminal oxo - groups by exchanging one water ligand with a surface oxygen atom (TiO configuration), a di - substituted, di - hydrolyzed complex above two terminal adjacent oxo - groups by exchanging two water ligands with the two surface oxygen atoms (TiO-TiO configuration) and one di - substituted, non - hydrolyzed complex above one terminal and one bridging adjacent oxo - groups ( Ti2O-TiO configuration). One binuclear and one three - nuclear complex are formed, in addition, at the compact layer. In the first case the receptor site involves one bridging and two terminal oxo- groups (Ti2O-TiO--TiO configuration) whereas in the second case the receptor site involves two bridging and three terminal oxo - groups (Ti2O-TiO--TiO--TiO-Ti2O configuration). The TiO configuration predominates in the whole range of the surface concentration studied. The contribution of the TiO-TiO and Ti2O-TiO configurations is also important at very low Ni(II) surface concentration, but this contribution is rapidly decreased as the Ni(II) surface concentration increases. The relative surface concentrations of the Ti2O-TiO--TiO and Ti2O-TiO--TiO--TiO-Ti2O configurations initially increase with the Ni(II) surface concentration and then remain practically constant. The aforementioned interfacial speciation was explained in stereochemical terms. Moreover, the structure of the inner sphere surface complexes and the interfacial speciation are in general agreement with those predicted by performing semi-empirical quantum chemical calculations of the deposition process. The deposition model developed has described the ‘adsorption edges’, the ‘proton–ion titration curves’ and the deposition isotherms well, further corroborating its validity.