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<p>Over the past few decades, issues of school violence and crime have received international attention. High profile events, such as the Columbine or Virginia Tech school shootings, have led schools and boards of education world-wide to create and implement numerous policies and procedures in an attempt to keep students safe. However, data on school violence trends demonstrate a far more equivocal situation. School violence trends demonstrate stability over time at low levels of actual violence. In this dissertation, I attempt to account for the gap between the high number of school responses and the relatively low and stable trends in the prevalence of school crime and violence. Three main hypotheses, stemming from the culture of fear, institutional theory, and confirmatory bias, account for this gap. The culture of fear hypotheses suggests that the gap has been created by widespread fear that is pervasive, decoupled from the ecology of school crime and violence, and generated widely by the mass media. Although this is a cultural theory, institutional theory takes an organizational approach to account for this gap. Institutional theory suggests that the gap has been created by institutional processes of schools seeking legitimacy and reflecting how centralized hierarchies respond to the institutional environment, where fear takes a more loosely coupled form, and can be sensitive to the ecological variation of school crime and violence. The third hypothesis is a cognitive one, and suggests that confirmatory bias processes are the mechanisms by which scattered and sporadic acts of school violence receive large scale exposure, and therefore not only are able to generate cultures of fear, but also serve to legitimate policy. These three hypotheses are tested using a mixed-methods approach, including 66 interviews with key-players associated with schools (students, teachers, administrators, and parents), descriptive analyses of existing survey data (e.g., National statistics; Safe Schools Survey), and a content analysis of the media’s presentation of issues surrounding school crime and violence. This mixed methods approach provides a unique and holistic approach to test these hypotheses, asking several different research questions of various levels of analysis (from the individual to the community). Explaining the gap between school violence trends and school responses provides a unique contribution to the literature: it furthers our understanding of the complexities associated with school safety; it operationalizes and tests the culture of fear theory which, to date, has not been accomplished, and; it utilizes institutional theory and confirmatory bias in new ways, by applying them to issues of school safety.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Esports, or competitive video gaming competitions, have grown in popularity to have millions of global fans, spectators, and participants. Sport organizations, including leagues and teams, are increasingly affiliating, or dovetailing, with esports organizations. Although the meteoric rise of esports presents sport organizations with growth opportunities to connect with these markets, esports remain shrouded in uncertainty, stigma, and stereotypes that impede the convergence of industries. The growing affiliation between these two industries allows researchers to gain insight into the strategic actions of sport organizations despite the institutional constraints that influence their behavior. This dissertation includes three essays that address—with respect to esports—the (1) strategic resources and core competencies of sport organizations; (2) sensemaking of actors within sport organizations; and (3) institutional creation strategies within heavily regulated fields. Essay one consists of an explanatory, qualitative study of professional sport teams diversifying into the esports industry. As sport organizations mature, they will need to seek growth opportunities beyond their core industry and compete with formally tangentially related firms. The nascent esports industry has been embraced by sport organizations (e.g., leagues, teams), many of whom use existing resources and best practices from traditional sport to manage their esports property. This trend provides a salient context to identify how sport organizations are using their resources in a new marketspace and what they can provide to non-sport organizations. Guided by strategic management perspectives of the resource-based view (RBV), knowledge-based view (KBV), and resource orchestration (RO), the purpose of essay one is to examine how sport organizations leverage their core competencies to create a sustainable competitive advantage. The findings support the hypothesis that the existing resources of sport organizations such as physical venues and existing departments (e.g., legal, marketing, sales departments) are used to support sport organizations operations in the esports industry. Moreover, the findings identify that the tacit knowledge embedded in the human capital of sport organizations is a salient resource that helps them generate a competitive advantage against non-sport organizations. While tacit knowledge is a driver of competitive advantage, it is the supporting structures and departments that allows sport organizations to use this knowledge efficiently and effectively. Thus, by operating at the intersection of sport, entertainment, and media, sport organizations are increasingly competing with formally tangentially related firms, and can use their embedded resources and structure when competing with these firms. Essay two focuses on the integration of esports by a first-mover sport organization. Essay two employs an exploratory case study of the Philadelphia 76ers of the National Basketball League (NBA) and their integration of an esports team. The 76ers were the first North American professional sports organization to purchase and integrate an esports team. Novel technologies and practices, such as esports, are surrounded by uncertainty and are generally met with resistance (Huber, 1990) with their integration contingent upon internal and external constituent support. Actors, individuals within the 76ers, had to position and garner support for esports, which are representative of the novel practices and technologies influencing the way sport organizations are managed. In essay two an institutional creation work perspective is linked with sensemaking and related constructs to examine how actors within the 76ers helped create and give meaning—sensemaking—to esports. The findings of essay two support how actors within the 76ers were able to foster a progressive culture to create a shared understanding of esports and use this understanding to influence the sensemaking of others—sensegiving. In particular, the 76ers linked the managerial components of operating a sports team to operating an esports team. Yet the 76ers were deliberate in their approach, limiting cross-promotions between the fanbases of the 76ers and their esports team. By connecting institutional creation work with sensemaking, essay two contributes to how actors can proactively take actions to garner constituent support. Moreover, the findings of essay two support that sensemaking is a critical antecedent of sensegiving, as a shared understanding within an organization is a necessary prerequisite to influence the sensemaking of others (i.e., sensegiving). Essay two provides actors within the field of sport integrating novel practices and activities (e.g., augmented and virtual reality, in-game sports betting, wearable fitness devices, mediated sports consumption) strategies to proactively garner support for their integration. Essay two focuses on the integration of esports by professional sport organizations. Essay three utilizes an exploratory qualitative approach to identify the institutional creation strategies associated with integrating collegiate esports programs within the heavily regulated field of U.S. collegiate athletics. The findings of essay three support how actors need to go beyond creating a shared understanding to integrate novel activities. Actors must also influence the cognitive schema of other actors to facilitate the integration of novel practices and activities. Specifically, they can build on the concept of sportification (Heere, 2018) to both communicate and present esports in a manner consistent with traditional sports, using the concept of sport as a legitimizing agent. Collectively, the three essays support how sport organizations can seize growth opportunities with respect to their institutional environment. Sport organizations must recognize their institutional confines, but also can be strategic in their actions by focusing on their financial performance and sustainability in lieu of their constraints. This research contributes to a deeper understanding regarding how the institutional and strategic concerns of sport organizations influence their efficient and effective management. The research lays a foundation for a stream of future research on the strategic growth and long-term viability of sport organizations both within and beyond the esports industry. / Tourism and Sport

This dissertation sought to develop a grounded theory explaining how ENGOs assess the environmental performance of firms, select target industries and firms, and influence those targeted industries and firms. A preliminary model based on research in the fields of social movements, neo-institutional theory, stakeholder theory, and corporate social performance was developed. The model contained 21 propositions: seven regarding assessment, nine regarding targeting, and five regarding influencing. Interviews were conducted with 33 representatives of five ENGOs: Natural Resources Defense Council (NRDC), Greenpeace, Environmental Defense (ED), World Resources Institute (WRI), and Union of Concerned Scientists (UCS). NRDC and WRI served as pilot studies. NRDC, Greenpeace, and ED were considered case studies for the purpose of drawing inferences about the propositions. Insufficient interviews were conducted at WRI and UCS to draw inferences from them; however, data from these interviews was included in the dissertation to the extent it provided additional support for the inferences drawn. Qualitative methods were used to analyze the data. Results regarding the propositions were presented, as well as additional findings going beyond the propositions. A grounded theory of how ENGOs assess, target, and influence firms was developed based on the results; a model to accompany the grounded theory was also developed. / Ph. D.

The number of Ombudsman offices in U.S. federal agencies rose dramatically in the 1990s. This study investigates why, despite the efforts of policymakers to force staff reductions across the federal government, Ombudsman offices continued to be established to the point that almost every agency has an Ombudsman. This study uses neo-institutionalist theory to pinpoint indicators that explain what has triggered the proliferation of external facing Ombudsmen in the federal government. The results of this historical retrospective investigation, which uses a mixed methods approach, indicate that the offices were created to ensure procedural justice and as a response to both: stakeholder pressures (since the population became more vocal and active, demanding access to the government, transparency, and accountability) and congressional mandates (such as the Administrative Dispute Resolution Act (ADRA) of 1990 and 1996 the Alternative Dispute Resolution Acts from 1998). This is consistent with neo-institutionalist expectations that organizations change as the result of pressures from forces in the environment combined with the drive for survival. As change accelerates, isomorphism occurs as organizations and agencies adopt strategies that have worked for other similar organizations in their environment. / Ph. D. / This study investigates why, despite the efforts of policymakers to force staff reductions across the federal government, external facing Ombudsman offices continued to be established in the U.S. federal government, to the point that almost every agency has an Ombudsman. This study uses neo-institutionalist theory to pinpoint indicators that explain what has triggered the proliferation of these entities. The results of this historical retrospective investigation indicate that the offices were created to ensure procedural justice and as a response to both: stakeholder pressures (since the population became more vocal and active, demanding access to the government, transparency, and accountability) and congressional mandates (such as the Administrative Dispute Resolution Act (ADRA) of 1990 and 1996 the Alternative Dispute Resolution Acts from 1998).

Veterans who served our country, return with a wealth of experience that transfer into military credit for prior service. These transfer credits in institutions of higher education apply towards education degree attainment. With colleges and universities implementing individual policies for acceptance of credits, veterans experience a loss of credits leading to a duplication of required classes to achieve degrees. To understand inconsistent practices, both federal and institutions of higher education polices are examined. Framed by institutionalization theory, this research sheds light on the public policy process and administration of credit at the organization over time. The study provides findings for how the largest public college and higher education institution in the state of California awards academic credit for military education. Evidence suggests that public higher education institutions adapt based on effective leaders who define and defend the organization's institutional values and mission. This study provides findings on institutional adaptations to create policies and practices that public administrators use to apply transfer military credit into postsecondary academic credit. The focus is on postsecondary credit transferred, or articulated, by entering military first-year students using the GI Bill. The study asks how have major institutions of higher education formalized institutional policies and practices on awarding academic credit for military education? / Doctor of Philosophy / This study provides findings on institutional adaptations to create policies and practices that public administrators use to apply transfer military credit into postsecondary academic credit. The focus is on postsecondary credit transferred, or articulated, by entering military first-year students using the GI Bill. The study asks how have major institutions of higher education formalized institutional policies and practices on awarding academic credit for military education?

Yes / In light of the emerging African Union (AU) legal order, this chapter examines AU’s institutions and courts to situate AU law in the wider context of AU’s enforcement mechanisms. In the nearly two decades of the operational phase of the AU, several institutions and courts have arguably ensured enforcements of its laws, policies, and decisions. Added to its judicial, human rights, and legal organs, the African Court of Human Rights has been at the disposal of the AU in the fight against human rights abuses and implementation of regional and international instruments in environmental and criminal law matters. What could potentially be the impact of these institutions on AU law? Also, will the evolving AU law require a separate enforcement mechanism, or could it rely on pre-existing institutions and courts? These issues become necessary in view of the AU’s commitment to implement Aspiration 3 of Agenda 2063, which amongst other things, envisions respect for human rights, justice, and the rule of law within the region. The chapter argues that the challenges of weak institutions, corruption, and internal conflicts are endemic within the continent. Therefore, it takes the view that a system of normative, cultural, and cognitive institutional reforms and transformation will be valuable.

Abstract Background: The European Commission has released the Corporate Sustainability Reporting Directive (CSRD) to make Europe the first climate-neutral continent, targeting a 55% reduction in greenhouse gas emissions by 2030. The directive shifts sustainability reporting from a voluntary to mandatory framework, significantly expanding the range of companies to report. The implementation has gradually started in 2024.   Purpose: The study aims to investigate how Swedish consultancy firms are implementing the CSRD regulations among their clients and how the new regulations are communicated. Understanding this implementation phase can provide insights to manage stakeholder relationships and institutional pressure to remain competitive.  Method: Adopting an interpretivist paradigm, this case study uses Stakeholder and Institutional Theory to explore CSRD implementation among consultancy firms, clients, and other stakeholders. Qualitative interviews were conducted, followed by thematic analysis to identify key mechanisms for implementing the new reporting standards. Conclusion: The findings conclude that sustainability reporting has transitioned from a strategic choice to an institutional requirement. Companies now depend on sustainability consultants to develop strategies for complying with CSRD. Additionally, stakeholder engagement within companies becomes improved with the implementation of CSRD.

Abstract Background: The global shift towards renewable energy is critical for combating climate change and achieving sustainability. This transition is significantly influenced by regulatory frameworks, which vary across different sectors and regions. Turkey's tourism sector, a substantial consumer of energy, presents a unique context for examining the impacts of renewable energy regulations. Purpose: This study explores the implications of recent renewable energy regulatory changes in Turkey on the tourism sector. It aims to understand how these regulations influence the adoption and implementation of renewable energy solutions within tourism businesses, the economic impacts of these regulations, and the role of societal norms and stakeholder expectations in driving these changes.  Method: Employing a qualitative case study approach, this research integrates semi-structured and unstructured interviews, field observations, and document analysis to gather detailed insights. The study focuses on "Summer Tour," a prominent Turkish tourism agency, examining the company’s strategies and responses to regulatory changes through the lens of Institutional Theory. Conclusion: The findings reveal that regulatory changes, particularly the amendments allowing unlicensed energy production outside consumption areas, have significantly facilitated renewable energy adoption in the tourism sector. These changes have yielded substantial economic benefits, including cost savings and enhanced profitability. However, unintended consequences such as regulatory complexity and retroactive policy adjustments pose challenges. Additionally, societal norms and stakeholder expectations play a critical role in shaping organizational behavior towards sustainability. This study provides valuable insights for policymakers and businesses, highlighting the importance of adaptive strategies and comprehensive regulatory frameworks in promoting renewable energy adoption. / <p>Thesis tackles an interesting topic of renewable energy adoption through the lens of institutional theory. The background section is well written which clearly highlights the importance of the study. Problem discussion, however, lacks theoretical focus. Institutional theory is presented as a theoretical lens to understand adoption of renewable energy in Turkish tourism sector but motivation of using this theory is missing. Authors need to further elaborate on: what we know about institutional theory and sustainability, what we do not know? And how the current research adds to our understanding of institutional theory and sustainability. Literature review chapter is well structured. There is good discussion on the literature on renewable energy adoption and the government role which shows authors in-depth understanding of the topic. Also, section on Turkish renewable sector is well presented. The section on institutional theory is okay. However, the discussion on the connections between three pillars and renewable energy/sustainability are generic, how it is relevant in Turkish context is lacking, specifically in the tourism industry. Need to reflect on how the use of institutional theory enhance our understanding of Renewable energy adoption in Turkish tourism sector. Single case study is well connected to the purpose and RQ of the thesis. However critical reflection on single case study design is needed, for example a discussion on single vs multiple case design and why authors have chosen single case design. There is an interesting discussion on data analysis but lacks explanation on how different steps are taken to move from codes to themes and aggregate dimensions. Case description is well written, however, there is a need to add a chronological history, steps taken, and challenges faced by the company and how they overcome these challenges overall findings are well presented in a data structure. The discussion chapter relates the findings to the existing literature. There is an interesting discussion on updated conceptual framework vis a vis Turkish tourism sector, but how these contribute to the literature on institutional theory and sustainability is lacking. There needs to be a discussion on adding to the existing literature which extends the current understanding of institutional theory in general and sustainability in particular.</p>