Les virus foamy simiens (VFS) sont la troisième famille des rétrovirus complexes exogènes infectant l'Homme. Ces virus, zoonotique, sont transmis par des fluides biologiques (principalement la salive), lors d'un contact direct entre un individu et un singe infecté. Ils établissent une infection chronique chez l'hôte infecté. À ce jour, aucune pathologie n'a été associée à au cas d'infections humaines par le VFS, et aucun cas de transmission secondaire n'a été rapporté dans la population. L'infection VFS représente un modèle naturel de la restriction de l'émergence d'un rétrovirus simien chez l'Homme. Lors de ma thèse, j'ai caractérisé la réponse humorale contre les VFS chez des personnes vivant au Cameroun ou au Gal infectées suite à des morsures lors d'épisodes de chasse. J'ai montré la présence d'anticorps neutralisants les VFS dans 48 sujets infectés, à des titres élevés. La population étudiée est infectée par des virus de deux génotypes qui diffèrent dans le domaine central de la protéine impliqué dans la liaison au récepteur cellulaire. J'ai montré des réponses neutralisantes spécifiques de chaque génotype des sujets étudiés et des réactivités croisées chez 40% d'entre-eux. Parmi ces derniers, la moitié est infectée par deux souches virales. En conclusion, mon travail de thèse est la première caractérisation des anticorps neutralisants chez des personnes infectées chroniquement par un VFS zoonotique : ces anticorps sont fréquemment détectés, à des titres élevés et sont dirigés contre des épitopes conservés entre les VFS de chimpanzé et de gorille. / Simian foamy virus (SFV) are the third family of exogenous complex retroviruses infecting humans. These viruses, of origins, are transmitted by body fluids (mainly saliva), through a direct contact between an individual and an infected m establish a chronic infection in the infected human host. To date, neither pathology, nor secondary transmission has be to be associated with SFV infection in humans. Therefore, SFV represents a natural model of restriction emerging simiar in humans. During my PhD, I characterized the humoral response against SFV in people living in Cameroon and Gabon, mainly infected bites during hunting episodes. I showed the presence of SFV neutralizing antibodies in the plasma of 48 infected individ titers. Our study population is infected with viruses of 2 different genotypes, which differ in the central region of the En region involved in binding to the cellular receptor.While in 60% of cases, neutralizing response was specific to a single genotype, 40% of cases showed cross-reactivity. Cr( was associated in 50% of cases with co-infection with viruses from both genotypes.In conclusion, my PhD is the first study to characterize neutralizing antibodies in individuals chronically infected with a zoonotic SFV : these antibodies are frequently detected at high titers and are directed against epitopes commonly found in chimpanzee and gorilla SFV.

Contrary to what many scholars hold, a case can be made for human population reduction (the practice of artificially decreasing the number of human beings on the Earth). Robin Attfield's, Paul Taylor's, Arne Næss's and J. Baird Callicott's theories are considered for justifying human population reduction; however, only Næss's actually justifies reduction. Another argument for human population reduction is developed, based on rectification: humans have unjustly harmed other living entities and themselves, and they should provide rectification for the harm done. Human population reduction is a way in which this rectification can be given.

Successful architecture is an engagement of space that fosters learning and growth. It is the space in which we are drawn away from the distractions around us, allowing us to focus on the present. It offers the opportunity to not only learn and grow relationships, but also to rehabilitate broken and fractured ones. Through this learning and growth, we become better understanding and loving toward each other. Thus, architecture stands as a true mediator of the relationships that exist around the world. Architecture is not exclusive toward human to human engagement. Architecture can extend beyond the understanding of human and engage many species such as canines. This thesis proposes to investigate a cross-species architecture serving to rehabilitate broken and fractured interspecies relationships. Focusing on one of the strongest human-interspecies relationships to exist, this thesis will conduct research-based design on the human and dog relationship. Although the human and dog relationship are one of the stronger cross-species relationships, there remains complex and fractured components. For example, in many aspects across homeless and stray dogs, the human and dog relationship has vii become one that is extremely broken and fractured. This thesis proposes to take an in depth look at the historical context and the present human-canine relationship and understanding how architecture can be used to grow the relationship. In allowing cross-species architecture to act the mediator in rehabilitating the fractured components of the human and dog relationship, the level of learning and growth within the human and dog relationship can reach new heights.

Pepper is a popular and important vegetable crop grown and consumed worldwide. However, pepper production is threatened by the gram-negative bacterium Xanthomonas euvesicatoria (Xe) which causes bacterial spot (BS) disease, one of the most common and destructive diseases on pepper. Due to limited genetic resistance resources in host species, a promising strategy for controlling BS disease is to transfer nonhost disease resistance (R) genes from other plant species into pepper plants to confer broad-spectrum and durable resistance. A maize R gene Rxo1 has been functionally transferred to rice plants and confers nonhost resistance to rice pathogen Xanthomonas oryzae pv. oryzicola (Xoc) carrying a type III effector (T3E) AvrRxo1. Most Xe strains carry a T3E Xe4428, a homolog of AvrRxo1. Therefore, Rxo1 could be potentially employed to develop Xe-resistant pepper. In addition, a better understanding of the virulence function of Xe4428 may provide insights into the pathogenesis of Xe and new strategies for crop improvement. In this dissertation, we transformed Rxo1 into the far-related dicot species Nicotiana benthamiana and pepper, and characterized the Rxo1-mediated disease resistance against Xe strains carrying AvrRxo1 or Xe4428. In addition, we explored the virulence function and mechanism of Xe4428. In the Rxo1-transgenic N. benthamiana, we demonstrated that Rxo1 could condition resistance to Xe harboring AvrRxo1 but not Xe4428. We revealed that AvrRxo1 could directly interact with the nucleotide-binding domain of Rxo1 in vivo and in vitro. We further demonstrated that the nucleus localization of AvrRxo1 was required for its avirulence and virulence functions. In addition, the cytosol localization of Rxo1 was also necessary to confer disease resistance. The downstream signaling component NbNDR1 was demonstrated to be involved in Rxo1/AvrRxo1-mediated disease resistance. By RNAseq-based gene expression profiling, we identified six candidate genes of interest up-regulated by the Rxo1-AvrRxo1 recognition. Through virus-induced gene silencing screening, a gene encoding phenylalanine ammonia-lyase 4 was demonstrated to be critical for Rxo1/AvrRxo1-mediated disease resistance in N. benthamiana. Rxo1-transgenic pepper plants were resistant to the Xe strain with the complementary Xoc effector AvrRxo1 but not the wild-type Xe strain that carries Xe4428. A Xe4428 mutant with only one nucleotide substitution could trigger the Rxo1-mediated disease resistance in pepper. Both wild-type and mutant Xe4428 had significant virulence functions that could promote the Xe bacterial proliferation on wild-type pepper plants. In addition, the mutant Xe4428 had a higher expression level than wild-type Xe4428 in Xe bacterial cells, which might explain why the mutant Xe4428 but not wild-type Xe4428, could trigger the Rxo1-mediated disease resistance in pepper. We identified 14 pepper cystatin genes (CaCys), among which two genes (CaCys1 and CaCys13) could be induced, and two genes (CaCys3 and CaCys5) were suppressed by Xe4428. Ectopically expressing one of the induced genes CaCys1 in N. benthamiana increased the stomatal opening and promoted the Xe growth in N. benthamiana plants. Thus, we illuminate one possible mechanism of Xe4428's virulence function is to regulate the stomata apertures in N. benthamiana. Bacterial fruit blotch (BFB) caused by the gram-negative bacterial pathogen Acidovorax citrulli (A. citrulli) is one of the most destructive diseases in cucurbit crops, including melon and watermelon. A better understanding of the virulence and avirulence functions of T3Es in A. citrulli helps breeders engineer crop resistance to BFB. To this end, a clean genetic background of A. citrulli with multiple effector genes deleted is desired. Here, we optimized a marker-exchange-based method for sequential effector deletion and generated an AAC00-1 mutant with five effector genes (Aave2166, Aave3626, Aave1548, Aave2938, Aave2708) deleted (AAC00-15). AAC00-15 was less virulent in watermelon but more virulent in N. benthamiana. Through complementation, we characterized the function of individual effectors and identified a promising R gene, Roq1, that could be used to control BFB disease. / Doctor of Philosophy / As an essential ingredient in almost all cuisines, pepper is grown and consumed worldwide, providing human beings with favorable flavor and nutrients. However, pepper production is threatened by the destructive bacterial spot (BS) disease caused by the bacterial pathogen Xanthomonas euvesicatoria (Xe). Due to limited genetic resistance resources in host species, nonhost resistance (R) genes from other plant species are desired to confer broad-spectrum and durable resistance to the pepper pathogen Xe. Previously, a maize (corn) R gene called Rxo1 was transferred to rice plants. This gene helped these rice plants resist a rice bacterial pathogen that causes leaf streak disease on rice. This rice pathogen has an effector (a virulent protein produced by bacteria to infect plants) that is required for the disease resistance. The pepper pathogen carries a similar effector, so transferring the maize R gene Rxo1 to pepper plants might similarly benefit peppers and help fight against the bacterial spot disease. In this dissertation, we successfully transferred the maize R gene Rxo1 into Nicotiana benthamiana and pepper plants. Our results indicate that this gene can help control disease caused by the pepper pathogen harboring the effector of the rice pathogen but not its native effector. We also illuminate how the disease resistance conferred by this maize gene happens in Nicotiana benthamiana plants. In addition, we explain how the corresponding effector helps infect plants. This research provides insights into the application of R gene transfer between far-related plant species and new tools to improve crop disease resistance.

For the second study, a web-based survey was developed and distributed to all members of four major health education organizations. A total of 1,925 HEs’ completed the survey and 1,607 responses were utilized in the final analysis. This study indicated that participants had deficient knowledge and unfavorable attitudes toward the CDCproposed genomic competencies. In the third study, a theoretical model was developed to predict HEs’ likelihood to incorporate genomic competencies into their practice. Using techniques from Structural Equation Modeling (SEM), the model was tested with the same data of the second study. Findings supported the proposed theoretical model. While genomic knowledge, attitudes, and self-efficacy were significantly associated with HEs’ likelihood to incorporate genomic competencies into their practice, attitudes was the strongest predictor of likelihood. In summary, these studies indicated that participating HEs had deficient genomic knowledge, unfavorable attitudes toward a set of CDC-proposed genomic competencies, and low likelihood to adopt genomic competencies into health promotion. Relevant training should be developed and advocated. As the SEM analysis results indicated the survey findings supported the proposed theoretical model, which can be utilized to steer future training for HEs. statistics, 2) unadjusted inferential statistics, 3) stratified analysis, and 4) multivariable models. My investigation produced results in accord with generally accepted notions in addition to significant findings that interestingly counter current preconceptions. Intraspecies contact was more common than inter-species, with indirect contact occurring more frequently than direct. Direct contact between species occurred extremely rarely. The most important factors that influenced the rate of contact for both species were water, winter, and cultivated fields. Information regarding probability of infectious agent survival and transfer will be used in the future to advance current epidemiological models, including geographicautomata (Ward et al. 2007: In Press) and cellular automata models (Doran and Laffan 2005) to better understand and manage integrated domestic cattle and free-ranging wildlife populations. Such modeling provides essential and necessary knowledge for developing prevention, detection, response, and recovery strategies – employed in advance, during, and after a disease outbreak, respectively.

The question of animals and performance defines the crossroads of the academic fields of Critical Animals Studies and Performance Studies, giving rise to the proposition of inter-species performance. But are all performances that integrate animals into the production inter-species? Or are there different manners of collaboration? In 2008 and my horse, Katrina, and I rode across Canada. Though this event was not undertaken as a performance endeavour, the production that emerged can be understood as a uniquely collaborative human/equine performance – The Ride. The Ride presented a meeting through the middle of an inter-species partnership that was performance in its foundation of physical communication and learned cooperation between a human and a horse. The Ride was an event that “became” a performance due to its active, reciprocal human/equine exchange, and the experiential interaction of a host of audience/participators throughout the course of the journey. Through embracing the positive, expansive qualities of equine alterity, and recognizing both the human and equine perspectives at play within the event, The Ride presented a performance that was fundamentally inter-species.

La capacité du virus de la grippe aviaire à traverser la barrière des espèces et à devenir fortement pathogène chez les mammifères est un problème majeur de santé publique. Chez les oiseaux, la réplication a lieu dans l'intestin, à 4C, tandis que chez les humains elle a lieu dans l'appareil respiratoire, plus froid, à 33C. Il a été montré que l'adaptation à la température du virus de la grippe a lieu par de nombreuses mutations de la polymérase virale, notamment dans le domaine 627-NLS situé en C-terminal de la protéine PB2. Ce domaine est impliqué dans l'adaptation à l'hôte et interagit avec la protéine de l'hôte, importine alpha, étant donc indispensable pour l'entrée de la polymérase virale dans le noyau de la cellule [Tarendeau et al., 2008]. Les structures cristallographiques du 627-NLS et du complexe importine alpha/NLS existent. Cependant, lors de la superposition de ces structures via leur domaine NLS commun, un important choc stérique entre le domaine 627 et l'importine alpha devient évident. Ceci indique qu'une autre conformation du 627-NLS est requise pour l'interaction avec l'importine alpha [Boivin and Hart, 2011]. Dans cette étude, nous avons examiné les bases moléculaires de l'adaptation inter-espèces du virus à travers l'étude de la structure et de la dynamique du 627-NLS aviaire et humain. Nous avons identifié deux conformations du 627-NLS en échange lent (10-100 s-1), correspondant apparemment à une conformation ouverte et une conformation fermée des deux domaines. Nous proposons que la conformation ouverte du 627-NLS est la seule conformation compatible avec l'interaction avec l'importine alpha, et que l'équilibre entre conformation ouverte et fermée pourrait jouer le rôle de thermostat moléculaire, contrôlant l'efficacité de la réplication virale chez différents hôtes. La cinétique et la dynamique de ce comportement conformationnel important ainsi que de l'interaction entre le 627-NLS et l'importine alpha ont été caractérisées par résonance magnétique nucléaire (déplacements chimique, augmentation paramagnétique de la relaxation, relaxation de spin, transfert de saturation par l'échange chimique), combinée à la diffusion des rayons X et des neutrons aux petits angles ainsi qu'au transfert d'énergie par résonance de type Förster. Aussi, nous avons déterminé les affinités d'une série de mutants évolutifs du 627-NLS pour l'importine alpha et du 627-NLS aviaire ou humain pour différents isoformes de l'importine alpha, montrant que les affinités observées sont cohérentes avec les préférences d'interactions vues in vivo. / The ability of avian influenza viruses to cross the species barrier and become dangerously pathogenic to mammalian hosts represents a major threat for human health. In birds the viral replication is carried out in the intestine at 40°C, while in humans it occurs in the cooler respiratory tract at 33°C. It has been shown that temperature adaption of the influenza virus occurs through numerous mutations in the viral polymerase, in particular in the C-terminal domain 627-NLS of the PB2 protein. This domain has already been shown to participate in host adaptation and is involved in importin alpha binding and therefore is required for entry of the viral polymerase into the nucleus [Tarendeau et al., 2008]. Crystallographic structures are available for 627-NLS and the complex importin alpha/NLS, however, a steric clash between importin alpha and the 627 domain becomes apparent when superimposing the NLS domain of the two structures, indicating that another conformation of 627-NLS is required for binding to importin alpha [Boivin and Hart, 2011]. Here we investigate the molecular basis of inter-species adaptation by studying the structure and dynamics of human and avian 627-NLS. We have identified two conformations of 627-NLS in slow exchange (10-100 s-1), corresponding to an apparently open and closed conformation of the two domains. We show that the equilibrium between closed and open conformations is strongly temperature dependent. We propose that the open conformation of 627-NLS is the only conformation compatible with binding to importin alpha and that the equilibrium between closed and open conformations may play a role as a molecular thermostat, controlling the efficiency of viral replication in the different species. The kinetics and domain dynamics of this important conformational behaviour and of the interaction between 627-NLS and importin alpha have been characterized using nuclear magnetic resonance chemical shifts, paramagnetic relaxation enhancement, spin relaxation and chemical exchange saturation transfer, in combination with X-ray and neutron small angle scattering and Förster resonance energy transfer. Also, we have determined the affinities of various evolutionnary mutants of 627-NLS to importin alpha and of avian and human 627-NLS to different isoforms of importin alpha, showing that the observed affinities are coherent with the preferred interactions seen in vivo.

Made available in DSpace on 2016-12-08T16:24:04Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 PGCA12MA036.pdf: 1592456 bytes, checksum: 158df0da96e6278ad45402fbb94c2c38 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2012-07-06 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / The adequate embryo development depends on proper nuclear-cytoplasmic interactions in the embryo. Such interactions are influenced by the donor cell type and quality of recipient oocyte on cloning, as well as by the characteristics of the sperm and the oocyte on in vitro fertilization (IVF). The first study (two experiments) investigated the effect of donor cell type (fibroblastic-like cells - FIB vs. adipocyte-derived mesenchymal stem cells - ADMSC), and host cytoplast (porcine reconstructed with 2 hemi-porcine cytoplasts; mosaic reconstructed with one-hemi-porcine and one hemi-bovine cytoplast; bovine reconstructed using 2 hemi-bovine cytoplasts), on development of porcine somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT) embryos. Somatic cell cultures were established from two animals of endangered pig breeds (Mule-foot and Moura) and embryos were reconstructed by hand-made cloning and cultured for 7 days in PZM-3 medium. Mosaic and bovine groups produced lower blastocyst rates than porcine (5.5, 1.9 and 18.0%, respectively). The group ADMSC-mosaic from Moura animal showed an intermediate embryo development on porcine and bovine groups, which is higher than the FIB-mosaic group of the same animal. The percentage of fragmented blastomeres in cleaved embryos and morulas from the mosaic and bovine groups were higher than the porcine. The dynamic of fusion was different according the group of cytoplasm, as observed through mitochondria staining. In the second study (three experiments), we investigated the effect of the histones de-acethylase inhibitor Scriptaid on the in vitro development of the three groups of SCNT reconstructed embryos. Reconstructed embryos were exposed to 500 nM of Scriptaid for 12 h starting just after activation, being then cultured in PZM-3 for 7 days. The blastocyst rates in the porcine (9.2 vs. 17.3%) and mosaic (1.0 vs. 9.2%) groups were increased by Scriptaid treatment (p < 0.05), and the proportion of fragmented morulas was reduced in mosaic (p < 0.05). However, Scriptaid treatment did not increase embryo development in the bovine group. In the second study (three experiments) the influence of distinct oocyte and spermatozoa qualities in their interaction in embryo IVP by IVF was evaluate. On experiment 1 and 3 the blastocyst rates were evaluated (day 7). On experiment 2, two bulls were used for IVF with good or poor oocytes. Bull A did not show difference according the oocyte quality: good (19.8%) and poor (12.7%). Bull B showed higher blastocyst rates in good quality (25.7%) than poor quality oocytes (9.2%). On experiment 2, sperm penetrating capacity was evaluated for both bulls in oocytes of low quality, by sub-zonal sperm injection. The penetration rate observed 3h after the injection from bull A (34.0%) was lower than for bull B (44.3%) (p < 0.05). On experiment 3, both bulls were used for ICSI of good or low quality oocytes and no bull or oocyte quality effect has affected blastocyst rates. In conclusion, the use of reprogramming modulators such as Scriptaid, and alternative technologies such as ICSI are adequate to provide, at least under particular conditions, an increase in embryo development / O desenvolvimento embrionário depende da adequada interação nucleo-citoplasmática, o que é influenciado pelo tipo de célula doadora e pela qualidade do oócito receptor na clonagem, assim como por características dos espermatozóides e oócitos na fecundação in vitro (FIV). O primeiro estudo foi constituído de dois experimentos. O primeiro experimento avaliou o tipo de célula doadora de núcleo (células fibroblásticas - FIB vs. células mesenquimais derivadas de adipócitos - ADMSC), com diferentes citoplastos receptores (suíno reconstruído com dois hemi-citoplasto suínos; mosaico reconstruído com um citoplasto suíno e um citoplasto bovino; bovino reconstruído com dois hemi-citoplastos bovinos), no desenvolvimento de embriões suínos, clonados por transferência nuclear de células somáticas (TNCS). Os cultivos celulares foram estabelecidos a partir de dois suínos de raças ameaçadas de extinção (casco de mula e moura), sendo os embriões reconstruídos por clonagem manual e cultivados in vitro por 7 dias, em meio PZM-3. Os grupos mosaico e bovino apresentaram produção embrionária menor que o grupo suíno (5,5; 1,9 e 18,0%, respectivamente). O grupo ADMSC-mosaico do animal moura apresentou produção embrionária intermediaria em relação ao controle e ao bovino, e superior ao grupo FIB-mosaico do mesmo animal. A porcentagem de blastômeros fragmentados em embriões clivados e mórulas foi superior nos grupos mosaico e bovino, em relação ao grupo suíno. A dinâmica de fusão, observada conforme a migração mitocondrial entre os citoplastos, foi diferente em função do citoplasto empregado. No segundo experimento foi investigado o efeito do inibidor de desacetilases Scriptaid no desenvolvimento embrionário in vitro dos grupos suíno, mosaico e bovino, utilizando-se células fibroblastos do animal moura. Os embriões reconstruídos foram expostos a 500 nM de Scriptaid por 12 h, iniciando a partir da ativação, sendo então cultivados em PZM-3 por 7 dias. A taxa de produção de blastocistos do grupo controle (9,2 vs. 17,3%) e mosaico (1,0 vs. 9,2%) aumentou com o uso de Scriptaid (p < 0,05), enquanto a proporção de fragmentos em mórulas reduziu no grupo mosaico (9,8 vs. 2,8%) (p < 0,05). No entanto, o uso de Scriptaid não aumentou a produção embrionária no grupo bovino. No segundo estudo, constituído de três experimentos, avaliou-se a influência de distintas qualidades de gametas na produção embrionária por FIV, em bovinos. Nos experimentos 1 e 3, foram avaliadas as taxas de produção embrionária no sétimo dia de cultivo. No experimento 2, dois touros de comprovada eficiência na produção embrionária in vivtro, foram utilizados na FIV de oócitos de qualidade boa e ruim. O touro 1 não mostrou diferença na produção embrionária com oócitos de qualidade boa (19,8%) ou ruim (12,7%). O touro 2 apresentou maior produção embrionária com oócitos bons (25,7%) do que com oócitos ruins (9,2%). No experimento 2, a capacidade penetrante dos dois touros foi avaliada em oócitos de qualidade ruim através da técnica de injeção espermática sub-zonal. A taxa de penetração, observada 3 h apos a injeção, foi menor no touro 1 (34,0%) em comparação ao touro 2 (44,3%) (p < 0,05). No experimento 3, o sêmen de ambos touros foi usado para injeção intra-citplasmática de espermatozóides com oócitos de viii ambas qualidades. Não foi observado nenhum efeito de touro ou oócito na produção embrionária. Os resultados permitem concluir que o uso de moduladores da reprogramação como Scriptaid e tecnologias como a ICSI são alternativas adequadas para incrementar, ao menos em condições particulares, o desenvolvimento embrionário

The eco-epidemiology of bovine tuberculosis (Tb) in wild deer (mainly red deer Cervus elaphus) in New Zealand was investigated. Bovine Tb is caused by Mycobacterium bovis. Specific aims were to clarify the likely routes of infection in deer, and to determine the status of deer as hosts of Tb, the likely rates and routes of inter- and intra-species transmission between deer and other wildlife hosts, the role of deer in spreading Tb, and the likely utility of deer as sentinels of Tb presence in wildlife. As the possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) is the main wildlife host of Tb, the research also included some investigation of transmission routes in possums. Patterns of infection were measured in 994 deer killed between 1993 and 2003. Tb prevalence varied between areas (range 8–36%). Few deer had generalised infection, with 21–68% of infected deer having no visible lesions, depending on the area. The retropharyngeal lymph nodes and oropharyngeal tonsils were commonly infected. No dependent fawns less than 0.75 years old were infected, indicating intra-species transmission is rare in wild deer. Where possums were not controlled, the net (cumulative) force of infection in young (1–4 y) deer was 0.10–0.24 per year in males and 0.09–0.12 per year in females, but much lower in older deer (less than 0.05 per year). Possum control reduced the net force of infection quickly, and eventually to zero. However, Tb persisted in possum-controlled areas through immigration of infected deer and, for almost a decade, through the survival of resident deer infected before possum control. Tb was lost from infected deer at an exponential rate of 0.13 per year, mostly as a result of deer recovering from infection rather than dying from it. Wild deer do die of Tb, but there was no discernible effect on age structure. The occurrence of infection in deer was not linked to the local deer or possum density at their kill sites (i.e. in their home range), but the area-wide prevalence of Tb in deer was closely correlated with Tb levels in possums, which were in turn correlated with area-wide measures of possum density. For wild deer in New Zealand, Tb is a persistent but usually inconsequential disease of the lymphatic system. It is acquired mainly by young independent deer, usually orally via the tonsils, and probably as a result of licking infected possums. Many species fed on deer carrion, including possums. Most possums encountering carrion did not feed on it, but a few fed for long periods. Other scavengers such ferrets (Mustela furo), hawks (Circus approximans), and weka (a hen-sized flightless native bird; Gallirallus australis) fed in a way that probably increased the infectivity of carrion to possums. Commercial deer hunting may have facilitated the historical establishment of Tb in possums. Scavenging (including cannibalism) and interactions with dead and dying possums are identified for the first time as potentially important routes for transmission of Tb to possums, and I develop new hypotheses involving peri- and post-mortem transmission in possums that explain many of the epidemiological patterns that are characteristic of the disease in possum. In continuous native forest, deer home range size averaged 250 hectares for six young females, and over twice that for two males. Over 90% of infected deer are likely to die within 2 km (females) or 6 km (males) of where they acquired Tb, but deer could occasionally carry Tb up to 30 km. Deer will be useful as sentinels, but only where other sentinels are rare, because the force of infection for a deer with a single infected possum in its home range is only 0.004 per year, compared to greater than 0.2 per year for deliberately released pigs. Deer are occasionally capable of initiating new cycles of infection in wildlife, but deer control is not essential to eradicate Tb from wildlife.

The eco-epidemiology of bovine tuberculosis (Tb) in wild deer (mainly red deer Cervus elaphus) in New Zealand was investigated. Bovine Tb is caused by Mycobacterium bovis. Specific aims were to clarify the likely routes of infection in deer, and to determine the status of deer as hosts of Tb, the likely rates and routes of inter- and intra-species transmission between deer and other wildlife hosts, the role of deer in spreading Tb, and the likely utility of deer as sentinels of Tb presence in wildlife. As the possum (Trichosurus vulpecula) is the main wildlife host of Tb, the research also included some investigation of transmission routes in possums. Patterns of infection were measured in 994 deer killed between 1993 and 2003. Tb prevalence varied between areas (range 8–36%). Few deer had generalised infection, with 21–68% of infected deer having no visible lesions, depending on the area. The retropharyngeal lymph nodes and oropharyngeal tonsils were commonly infected. No dependent fawns less than 0.75 years old were infected, indicating intra-species transmission is rare in wild deer. Where possums were not controlled, the net (cumulative) force of infection in young (1–4 y) deer was 0.10–0.24 per year in males and 0.09–0.12 per year in females, but much lower in older deer (less than 0.05 per year). Possum control reduced the net force of infection quickly, and eventually to zero. However, Tb persisted in possum-controlled areas through immigration of infected deer and, for almost a decade, through the survival of resident deer infected before possum control. Tb was lost from infected deer at an exponential rate of 0.13 per year, mostly as a result of deer recovering from infection rather than dying from it. Wild deer do die of Tb, but there was no discernible effect on age structure. The occurrence of infection in deer was not linked to the local deer or possum density at their kill sites (i.e. in their home range), but the area-wide prevalence of Tb in deer was closely correlated with Tb levels in possums, which were in turn correlated with area-wide measures of possum density. For wild deer in New Zealand, Tb is a persistent but usually inconsequential disease of the lymphatic system. It is acquired mainly by young independent deer, usually orally via the tonsils, and probably as a result of licking infected possums. Many species fed on deer carrion, including possums. Most possums encountering carrion did not feed on it, but a few fed for long periods. Other scavengers such ferrets (Mustela furo), hawks (Circus approximans), and weka (a hen-sized flightless native bird; Gallirallus australis) fed in a way that probably increased the infectivity of carrion to possums. Commercial deer hunting may have facilitated the historical establishment of Tb in possums. Scavenging (including cannibalism) and interactions with dead and dying possums are identified for the first time as potentially important routes for transmission of Tb to possums, and I develop new hypotheses involving peri- and post-mortem transmission in possums that explain many of the epidemiological patterns that are characteristic of the disease in possum. In continuous native forest, deer home range size averaged 250 hectares for six young females, and over twice that for two males. Over 90% of infected deer are likely to die within 2 km (females) or 6 km (males) of where they acquired Tb, but deer could occasionally carry Tb up to 30 km. Deer will be useful as sentinels, but only where other sentinels are rare, because the force of infection for a deer with a single infected possum in its home range is only 0.004 per year, compared to greater than 0.2 per year for deliberately released pigs. Deer are occasionally capable of initiating new cycles of infection in wildlife, but deer control is not essential to eradicate Tb from wildlife.