The objective of this study was to quantitatively document interactions between black bears and backcountry visitors, and to identify the factors affecting those encounters. Fine hundred and ninety-two interactions were observed. The most common responses of visitors to bears were to watch, walk toward, and talk to others and/or point at the bear. Bears responded to humans largely by walking away, watching, traveling around, walking toward, and running away from people. Each behavior for both species was categorized into one of four response classes: (1) fear/avoidance, (2) neutrality, (3) approach, or (4) aggression. Over 65 percent of visitor responses were neutral. People were least likely to react to bears with fear/avoidance behavior. Bears also were most likely to be neutral. Of particular interest is the low occurrence of aggression shown by bears. Less than two percent of all responses fell into this category, most of which were exhibited by two animals. We witnessed no interactions which resulted in injury or even contact between visitors and bears. When ursid aggression did occur, bears appeared to be more aggressive in June, with younger visitors, and at close distances. Both human aggression and fear were correlated with short interactions. Bear behavior was greatly altered by possession of camper foods. Bears were more neutral and walked toward people less after they had begun to eat. They also showed much less fear of visitors at this time. Other correlations of both human and ursid behavior with biotic and abiotic variables ( temporal, spatial, environmental, etc.) are presented and discussed. Recommendations for improved management are also suggested.

Une caractéristique majeure de l’infection par Toxoplasma gondii est le contrôle rapide de la population parasitaire par une réponse immunitaire engageant des cellules résidentes et recrutées ainsi que des cytokines pro- et anti-inflammatoire. Dans ce contexte, l’IFNγ active une multitude d’activité anti- T. gondii des cellules immunes et non-immunes, mais peut aussi contribuer à l’immunopathologie. T. gondii a élaboré des mécanismes pour contrer les défenses de l’hôte en interférant avec la transcription des gènes stimulés par l’IFNγ. Nous avons identifié TgIST (T. gondii inhibitor of STAT1 transcriptional activity) comme un interrupteur moléculaire exporté par les parasites intracellulaires et qui est localisé dans le noyau des cellules hôtes, où il inhibe l’expression des gènes pro-inflammatoires dépendants de STAT1. Nous avons montré que TgIST séquestre STAT1 à des sites spécifiques, et promeut la formation de chromatine non permissive grâce à sa capacité à recruter le remodeleur chromatinien NuRD. Nous avons montré que durant l’infection aiguë en souris, les parasites déficients pour TgIST sont rapidement éliminés par les monocytes pro-inflammatoires GR1+, ce qui montre le rôle protecteur de TgIST contre les défenses médiées par l’IFNγ. En révélant les fonctions de TgIST, cette étude montre de nouvelles évidences sur la façon dont T.gondii a élaboré une arme moléculaire de choix pour prendre le contrôle sur la réponse immune, de façon à promouvoir le parasitisme à long terme / An early hallmark of Toxoplasma gondii infection is the rapid control of the parasite population by a potent multifaceted innate immune response that engages resident and homing immune cells along with pro- and counter-inflammatory cytokines. In this context, IFN-γ activates a variety of T. gondii–targeting activities in immune and nonimmune cells but can also con- tribute to host immune pathology. T. gondii has evolved mechanisms to timely counteract the host IFN-γ defenses by interfering with the transcription of IFN-γ–stimulated genes. We now have identified TgIST (T. gondii inhibitor of STAT1 transcriptional activity) as a critical molecular switch that is secreted by intracellular parasites and traffics to the host cell nucleus where it inhibits STAT1-dependent proinflammatory gene expression. We show that TgIST not only sequesters STAT1 on dedicated loci but also promotes shaping of a nonpermissive chromatin through its capacity to recruit the nucleosome remodeling deacetylase (NuRD) transcriptional repressor. We found that during mice acute infection, TgIST-deficient parasites are rapidly eliminated by the homing Gr1+ inflammatory monocytes, thus highlighting the protective role of TgIST against IFN-γ–mediated killing. By uncovering TgIST functions, this study brings novel evidence on how T. gondii has devised a molecular weapon of choice to take control over a ubiquitous immune gene expression mechanism in metazoans, as a way to promote long-term parasitism.