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L'astringence résulte de l'interaction des tanins, polyphénols abondants dans les végétaux, avec les protéines salivaires et plus particuliÈrement les protéines salivaires riches en proline (PRP), appartenant à la famille des protéines peu structurées. Les tanins participent aux mécanismes de défense des végétaux et présentent des effets antinutritionnels dus à leur capacitè à inhiber les enzymes digestives. La synthÈse de PRP salivaires constitue un mècanisme d'adaptation à la consommation d'aliments riches en tanins. Ce travail vise à caractèriser les complexes ètablis en solution entre les PRP et les tanins, par une approche basèe sur la spectromètrie de masse (MS). Pour cela, les protèines salivaires humaines IB5, PRP basique, et II-1, PRP glycosylèe, ont ètè produites par voie hètèrologue. AprÈs purification, les deux protèines ont ètè caractèrisèes par MS avec une source d'electronèbullisation (ESI-MS) et avec une source MALDI (Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionisation). L'ètude des interactions par ESI-MS a confirmè la prèsence en solution de complexes non-covalents IB5tanin et permis de prèciser leurs stchiomètries. Des expèriences de compètition entre diffèrents tanins et de dissociation des complexes IB5tanin ont mis en èvidence l'influence des principales caractèristiques structurales des tanins sur cette interaction. L'ètude structurale des èdifices IB5tanin, par diffèrentes techniques de MS/MS (Collision Induced Dissociation, Electron Capture Dissociation et photodissociation) et par mobilitè ionique couplèe à la MS, a mis en èvidence la prèsence de plusieurs sites d'interaction sur IB5 ainsi que des changements conformationnels liès à l'interaction / Astringency is an important organoleptic property of plant-based food. It is attributed to interactions of tannins, which are polyphenolic compounds, with salivary proteins and especially proline rich proteins (PRPs), which belong to the group of intrinsically unstructured protein (IUP). Tannins play an important part in plant defence mechanisms. Indeed, they have an antinutritional effect as they inhibit digestive enzymes. Production of salivary PRP is thus an adaptation process to tannin-rich diets. The purpose of this work is to provide a closer look at PRPtannin supramolecular edifices in solution, using a mass spectrometry (MS) approach. The human salivary proteins IB5, a basic PRP, and II-1, a glycosylated PRP, have been produced by heterologous expression. After purification, both proteins have been characterized by MS using electrospray (ESI) and Matrix-Assisted Laser Desorption/Ionisation (MALDI) sources. The study of the interaction between IB5 and model tannins by ESI-MS confirmed the presence of IB5tannin non covalent complexes in solution and provided new information on their stoichiometries. Competitive interaction experiments between IB5 and two tannins, along with IB5tannin complexes dissociation studies revealed the impact of the main tannin chemical features on this interaction. Structural studies performed on IB5tanin edifices by Collision induced dissociation (CID), Electron Capture Dissociation (ECD) and photodissociation MS/MS experiments and by ion mobility coupled with MS showed the presence of several interaction sites on IB5 and conformational changes arising from the interaction.

The MBD2-NuRD co-repressor complex is an epigenetic regulator of the developmental silencing of embryonic and fetal β-type globin genes in adult erythroid cells as well as aberrant methylation-dependent silencing of tumor suppressor genes in neoplastic diseases. Biochemical characterization of the MBD2-NuRD complex in chicken erythroid cells identified RbAp46/48, HDAC1/2, MTA1/2/3, p66α/β, Mi2α/β and MBD2 to comprise this multi-protein complex. In the work presented in Chapter 2, we have pursued biophysical and molecular studies to describe a previously uncharacterized domain of human MBD2 (MBD2IDR). Biophysical analyses show that MBD2IDR is an intrinsically disordered region (IDR). Despite this inherent disorder, MBD2IDR increases the overall binding affinity of MBD2 for methylated DNA. MBD2IDR also recruits the histone deacetylase core components (RbAp48, HDAC2 and MTA2) of NuRD through a critical area of contact requiring two contiguous amino acid residues, Arg286 and Leu287. Mutation of these critical residues abrogates interaction of MBD2 with the histone deacetylase core and impairs the ability of MBD2 to repress the methylated tumor suppressor gene Prostasin in MDA-MB-435 breast cancer cells. These findings expand our knowledge of the multi-dimensional interactions of the MBD2-NuRD complex that govern its function. In Chapter 3, we have discussed a novel mechanism for MBD2-mediated silencing of the fetal γ-globin gene. Through microarray expression analyses in adult erythroid cells of MBD2-/- mice, we identified ZBTB32 and miR-210 as downstream targets of MBD2. Over-expression of ZBTB32 and miR-210 in adult erythroid cells causes increased expression of the silenced fetal γ-globin gene. Thus, our results indicate that MBD2 may regulate γ-globin gene expression indirectly though ZBTB32 and miR-210 in adult erythroid cells.

L'oncoprotéine BCR-ABL est responsable de la physiopathologie de la Leucémie Myéloïde Chronique (LMC). La fusion d'une partie de la protéine ABL et de BCR entraîne une dérégulation de l'activité kinase portée par ABL. Plusieurs domaines contenus dans ces deux protéines jouent un rôle important dans l'activation du pouvoir oncogène. L'un d'entre eux est une région de BCR, située en N-terminal, contenant un domaine de liaison au domaine SH2. Durant ce travail de thèse, j'ai caractérisé, pour la première fois, les propriétés structurales de cette région, à l'aide de plusieurs méthodes biophysiques: le domaine de BCR est intrinsèquement désordonné. En parallèle, j'ai étudié les interactions entre le domaine de liaison de BCR et les domaines SH d'ABL. J'ai identifié de nouveaux sites d'interactions avec ABL sur BCR. Enfin, j'ai évalué l'impact fonctionnel des nouveaux sites d’interactions au sein de l'oncoprotéines BCR-ABL, dans un modèle cellulaire. Les résultats préliminaires montrent que deux nouveaux sites auraient un rôle dans le pouvoir oncogénique de BCR-ABL. Ces résultats offrent la possibilité de développer de nouveaux médicaments complémentaires aux existants, qui cibleraient une nouvelle région de BCR-ABL, ainsi pourraient lutter contre les résistances apparues chez les patients vis-à-vis des traitements actuels. / The BCR-ABL oncoprotein is responsible for the pathogenesis of chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML). The fusion of a part of ABL and BCR leads to deregulation of kinase activity of ABL. Several domains in these two proteins play an important role in the activation of oncogenic properties. One of them is a BCR region, located at the N- terminal part, containing a SH2 domain binding. In this thesis , I have characterized for the first time , the structural properties of this region, using several biophysical methods : the domain of BCR is intrinsically disordered. In parallel, I have studied the interactions between the binding domain of BCR and theSH domains of ABL. I identified new sites of interaction with ABL into BCR. Finally, I evaluated the functional impact of new sites of interaction within the BCR- ABL oncoprotein in a cellular model. Preliminary results show that two new sites have a role in the oncogenic properties of BCR- ABL. These results offer the possibility to develop new drugs complementary to existing , that target a new region of BCR- ABL and could fight against the resistance occurred in patients vis-a-vis current treatments.

The Golgi complex is an organelle responsible for receiving synthesized cargo from the endoplasmic reticulum for subsequent post-translations modifications, sorting and secretion. A family of proteins named Golgi Reassembly and Stacking Proteins (GRASP) is essential for the correct assembly and laterally tethering of the Golgi cisternae, a necessary structuration to keep this organelle working correctly. The GRASP structure is mainly composed of two regions: an N-terminal formed by two PDZ domains connected by a short loop (GRASP domain) and a non-conserved C-terminal region, rich in serine and proline residues. Although there are now a few crystal structures solved for the N-terminal domain, it is surprising to notice that no information is currently available regarding a full-length protein or even about dynamic and structural differences between the two PDZs in solution, which is the main functional region of this protein. Using a full-length GRASP model, we were capable of detecting the coexistence of regular secondary structures and large amounts of disordered regions. The overall structure is less compact than a regular globular protein and the high structural flexibility makes its hydrophobic core more accessible to solvent. GRASP coexist in a dynamic conformational ensemble of a µs-ms timescale. Our results indicate an unusual behavior of GRASP in solution, closely resembling a class of collapsed intrinsically disordered proteins called molten globule. We report here also the disorder-to-order transition propensities for a native molten globule-like protein in the presence of different mimetics of cell conditions. Changes in the dielectric constant (such as those experienced close to the membrane surface) seem to be the major factor capable of inducing several disorder-to-order transitions in GRASP, which seems to show very distinct behavior when in conditions that mimic the vicinity of the membrane surface as compared to those found when free in solution. Other folding factors such as molecular crowding, counter ions, pH and phosphorylation exhibit lower or no effect on GRASP secondary structure and/or stability. This is the first study focusing on understanding the disorder-to-order transitions of a molten globule structure without the need for any mild denaturing condition. Regarding the PDZs that form the GRASP domain, we observed that GRASPs are formed by a more unstable and flexible PDZ1 and much more stable and structurally well-behaved PDZ2. More than that, many of the unstable regions found in PDZ1 are in the predicted binding pocket, suggesting a structural promiscuity inside this domain that correlates with the functional promiscuity of interacting with multiple protein partners. This thesis presents the first structural characterization of a full-length GRASP, the first model of how GRASPs (or any molten globule-like protein) can be modulated by the cell during different cell functionalities and the first work in the community proving that the established idea that both PDZs are structurally equivalent is not completely right / O complexo de Golgi é um organela responsável pela recepção de carga sintetizada no retículo endoplasmático e por subsequente modificações pós-traducionais, classificação e secreção. Uma família de proteínas chamada Golgi Reassembly and Stacking Proteins (GRASP) é essencial para o correto empilhamento das cisternas e conexões laterais das pilhas do complexo de Golgi, uma estruturação necessária para manter essa organela funcionando corretamente. A estrutura das GRASPs é composta de duas regiões principais: uma extensão N-terminal formado por dois domínios PDZ conectados por um loop (domínio GRASP) e uma região C-terminal não conservada, rica em resíduos de serina e prolina. Embora existam algumas estruturas cristalográficas resolvidas para o domínio N-terminal, é surpreendente notar que não havia nenhuma informação na literatura sobre a construção inteira de um GRASP, ou mesmo um estudo detalhado sobre os PDZs no N-terminal em solução, que é a principal região funcional dessa proteína. Usando um modelo de GRASP em sua construção completa, fomos capazes de detectar a coexistência de estruturas secundárias regulares e grandes quantidades de regiões desordenadas. A estrutura é menos compacta do que uma proteína globular e a alta flexibilidade estrutural torna o seu núcleo hidrofóbico mais acessível ao solvente. GRASPs coexistem em um conjunto conformacional dinâmico numa escala de tempo característico de s-ms. Nossos resultados indicam um comportamento incomum da GRASP em solução, similar à de uma classe de proteínas intrinsicamente desordenadas colapsadas conhecidas como glóbulos fundidos. Nós relatamos também as propensões de transição estrutural do tipo desordem-ordem para uma proteína glóbulo fundido nativa, induzidas pela presença de diferentes miméticos de condições celulares especificas. A mudança na constante dielétrica do meio (como as experimentadas próximas à superfície da membrana biológica) é o principal modulador estrutural, capaz de induzir múltiplas transições desordem-ordem na GRASP, sugerindo um comportamento muito distinto quando em condições que imitam a vizinhança da superfície da membrana em comparação com os encontrados quando livre em solução. Outros fatores de enovelamento, tais como o molecular crowding, contra-ions, pH e a fosforilação exibem efeitos menores (ou nenhum) na estrutura secundária e/ou estabilidade da GRASP. Este é o primeiro estudo focado na compreensão das transições desordem-ordem em uma estrutura do tipo glóbulo fundido sem que houvesse a necessidade de qualquer condição desnaturante. Em relação aos PDZs que formam o domínio GRASP, observamos que as GRASPs são formadas por um PDZ1 mais instável e flexível e um PDZ2 muito mais estável e estruturalmente bem comportado. Mais do que isso, muitas das regiões instáveis encontradas no PDZ1 estão no predito bolsão de ligação, sugerindo uma promiscuidade estrutural dentro desse domínio que se correlaciona com a promiscuidade funcional de interação com múltiplos parceiros proteicos. É apresentado nesta tese a primeira caracterização estrutural de uma GRASP em sua forma completa, o primeiro modelo de como as GRASPs (ou qualquer proteína em forma de glóbulo fundido) pode ser modulada estruturalmente pela célula durante diferentes funcionalidades e o primeiro trabalho na comunidade provando que a estabelecido ideia de que ambos os PDZs são estruturalmente equivalentes não é completamente correta

A inferência de redes gênicas (GN) a partir de dados de expressão gênica temporal é um problema crucial e desafiador em Biologia Sistêmica. Os conjuntos de dados de expressão geralmente consistem em dezenas de amostras temporais e as redes consistem em milhares de genes, tornando inúmeros métodos de inferência inviáveis na prática. Para melhorar a escalabilidade dos métodos de inferência de GNs, esta tese propõe um arcabouço chamado GeNICE, baseado no modelo de redes gênicas probabilísticas. A principal novidade é a introdução de um procedimento de agrupamento de genes, com perfis de expressão relacionados, para fornecer uma solução aproximada com complexidade computacional reduzida. Os agrupamentos definidos são usados para reduzir a dimensionalidade permitindo uma busca exaustiva mais eficiente pelos melhores subconjuntos de genes preditores para cada gene alvo de acordo com funções critério multivariadas. GeNICE reduz consideravelmente o espaço de busca porque os candidatos a preditores ficam restritos a um gene representante por agrupamento. No final, uma análise multivariada é realizada para cada subconjunto preditor definido, visando recuperar subconjuntos mínimos para simplificar a rede gênica inferida. Em experimentos com conjuntos de dados sintéticos, GeNICE obteve uma redução substancial de tempo quando comparado a uma solução anterior sem a etapa de agrupamento, preservando a precisão da predição de expressão gênica mesmo quando o número de agrupamentos é pequeno (cerca de cinquenta) e o número de genes é grande (ordem de milhares). Para um conjunto de dados reais de microarrays de Plasmodium falciparum, a precisão da predição alcançada pelo GeNICE foi de aproximadamente 97% em média. As redes inferidas para os genes alvos da glicólise e do apicoplasto refletem propriedades topológicas de redes complexas do tipo \"mundo pequeno\" e \"livre de escala\", para os quais grande parte das conexões são estabelecidas entre os genes de um mesmo módulo e algumas poucas conexões fazem o papel de estabelecer uma ponte entre os módulos (redes mundo pequeno), e o grau de distribuição das conexões entre os genes segue uma lei de potência, na qual a maioria dos genes têm poucas conexões e poucos genes (hubs) apresentam um elevado número de conexões (redes livres de escala), como esperado. / Gene network (GN) inference from temporal gene expression data is a crucial and challenging problem in Systems Biology. Expression datasets usually consist of dozens of temporal samples, while networks consist of thousands of genes, thus rendering many inference methods unfeasible in practice. To improve the scalability of GN inference methods, this work proposes a framework called GeNICE, based on Probabilistic Gene Networks; the main novelty is the introduction of a clustering procedure to group genes with related expression profiles, to provide an approximate solution with reduced computational complexity. The defined clusters were used to perform an exhaustive search to retrieve the best predictor gene subsets for each target gene, according to multivariate criterion functions. GeNICE greatly reduces the search space because predictor candidates are restricted to one representative gene per cluster. Finally, a multivariate analysis is performed for each defined predictor subset to retrieve minimal subsets and to simplify the network. In experiments with in silico generated datasets, GeNICE achieved substantial computational time reduction when compared to an existing solution without the clustering step, while preserving the gene expression prediction accuracy even when the number of clusters is small (about fifty) relative to the number of genes (order of thousands). For a Plasmodium falciparum microarray dataset, the prediction accuracy achieved by GeNICE was roughly 97% on average. The inferred networks for the apicoplast and glycolytic target genes reflects the topological properties of \"small-world\"and \"scale-free\"complex network models in which a large part of the connections is established between genes of the same functional module (smallworld networks) and the degree distribution of the connections between genes tends to form a power law, in which most genes present few connections and few genes (hubs) present a large number of connections (scale-free networks), as expected.

A inferência de redes gênicas (GN) a partir de dados de expressão gênica temporal é um problema crucial e desafiador em Biologia Sistêmica. Os conjuntos de dados de expressão geralmente consistem em dezenas de amostras temporais e as redes consistem em milhares de genes, tornando inúmeros métodos de inferência inviáveis na prática. Para melhorar a escalabilidade dos métodos de inferência de GNs, esta tese propõe um arcabouço chamado GeNICE, baseado no modelo de redes gênicas probabilísticas. A principal novidade é a introdução de um procedimento de agrupamento de genes, com perfis de expressão relacionados, para fornecer uma solução aproximada com complexidade computacional reduzida. Os agrupamentos definidos são usados para reduzir a dimensionalidade permitindo uma busca exaustiva mais eficiente pelos melhores subconjuntos de genes preditores para cada gene alvo de acordo com funções critério multivariadas. GeNICE reduz consideravelmente o espaço de busca porque os candidatos a preditores ficam restritos a um gene representante por agrupamento. No final, uma análise multivariada é realizada para cada subconjunto preditor definido, visando recuperar subconjuntos mínimos para simplificar a rede gênica inferida. Em experimentos com conjuntos de dados sintéticos, GeNICE obteve uma redução substancial de tempo quando comparado a uma solução anterior sem a etapa de agrupamento, preservando a precisão da predição de expressão gênica mesmo quando o número de agrupamentos é pequeno (cerca de cinquenta) e o número de genes é grande (ordem de milhares). Para um conjunto de dados reais de microarrays de Plasmodium falciparum, a precisão da predição alcançada pelo GeNICE foi de aproximadamente 97% em média. As redes inferidas para os genes alvos da glicólise e do apicoplasto refletem propriedades topológicas de redes complexas do tipo \"mundo pequeno\" e \"livre de escala\", para os quais grande parte das conexões são estabelecidas entre os genes de um mesmo módulo e algumas poucas conexões fazem o papel de estabelecer uma ponte entre os módulos (redes mundo pequeno), e o grau de distribuição das conexões entre os genes segue uma lei de potência, na qual a maioria dos genes têm poucas conexões e poucos genes (hubs) apresentam um elevado número de conexões (redes livres de escala), como esperado. / Gene network (GN) inference from temporal gene expression data is a crucial and challenging problem in Systems Biology. Expression datasets usually consist of dozens of temporal samples, while networks consist of thousands of genes, thus rendering many inference methods unfeasible in practice. To improve the scalability of GN inference methods, this work proposes a framework called GeNICE, based on Probabilistic Gene Networks; the main novelty is the introduction of a clustering procedure to group genes with related expression profiles, to provide an approximate solution with reduced computational complexity. The defined clusters were used to perform an exhaustive search to retrieve the best predictor gene subsets for each target gene, according to multivariate criterion functions. GeNICE greatly reduces the search space because predictor candidates are restricted to one representative gene per cluster. Finally, a multivariate analysis is performed for each defined predictor subset to retrieve minimal subsets and to simplify the network. In experiments with in silico generated datasets, GeNICE achieved substantial computational time reduction when compared to an existing solution without the clustering step, while preserving the gene expression prediction accuracy even when the number of clusters is small (about fifty) relative to the number of genes (order of thousands). For a Plasmodium falciparum microarray dataset, the prediction accuracy achieved by GeNICE was roughly 97% on average. The inferred networks for the apicoplast and glycolytic target genes reflects the topological properties of \"small-world\"and \"scale-free\"complex network models in which a large part of the connections is established between genes of the same functional module (smallworld networks) and the degree distribution of the connections between genes tends to form a power law, in which most genes present few connections and few genes (hubs) present a large number of connections (scale-free networks), as expected.

Proteins are synthesised as linear polymeric chains. The subtle energetic interplay of interatomic interactions results in chain folding, through which proteins may acquire defined structures. This spatial organisation is encoded by the protein sequence itself; the so-called thermodynamic hypothesis formulated by Anfinsen in 1961. A defined structure is often considered a pre-requisite to protein function, but widespread existence of intrinsically disordered proteins (IDPs) has prompted a re- evaluation of the ways biological function may be encoded into polypeptide chains. Furthermore, proteins often exist as part of multi-component entities, where regulation of assembly is integral to their properties. The interplay between disorder, oligomerisation and function is the focus of this thesis. Some IDPs fold conditionally upon interacting with a partner protein; a process known as coupled folding and binding. What are the biophysical advantages and consequences of disorder in the context of these interactions? A common feature of IDPs is their sequence composition bias, with charged residues being often over-represented. It is therefore tempting to speculate that electrostatic interactions may play a major role in coupled folding and binding reactions. Surprisingly, the opposite was found to be true. Charge-charge interactions only contributed about an order of magnitude to the association rate constants of two contrasting model systems. The lack of pre-formed binding interfaces-a consequence of disorder-might preclude electrostatic acceleration from complementary patches. By looking at the role of the sequence, many studies have taken a protein-centric approach to understanding disorder. Yet there is paucity of data about the effect of extrinsic factors on interactions involving disordered partners. Investigating the role of co-solutes, it was discovered that the kinetic and thermodynamic profiles of coupled folding and binding reactions were sensitive to ion-types. This effect followed the Hofmeister series, and occurred at physiological concentrations of salt. The sensitivity of coupled folding and binding reactions-a consequence of the lack of stability of IDPs-might be advantageous. Given the role of ions in biology, this 'biophysical sensing' could be a mechanism of physiological relevance, allowing modulation of protein-protein interactions involving disordered partners in response to changes in their environments. In cells, signalling networks are often multi-layered, and involve competing protein-protein interactions. The interplay between the biophysical characteristics of the components, and the behaviour of the network were investigated in a model tripartite system composed of folded and disordered proteins. The BCL-2 family regulates the intrinsic pathway of apoptosis through control of mitochondrial outer-membrane permeabilisation; a result of BAK and BAX oligomerisation. Through a shared homology motif (termed BH3), the subtle balance of their interactions determines cellular fate at the molecular level. Characterisation of the model under simple biochemical conditions revealed large differences in affinities among binary interactions; the consequence of the lifetime of the complexes, not their speed of association. A membrane-like environment, re-created using detergents, allows the oligomerisation of BAK and BAX in vitro. Furthermore, investigation of the tripartite system under detergent conditions showed that regulation of the network was the result of competing hetero- and homo-oligomerisation events. Relationships to their biophysical properties were gained by probing their energy landscapes using protein folding techniques. The connection between the biophysical properties of the components of the network and their interactions provides a molecular explanation for the regulation of apoptosis. This thesis offers insights into the ways structured assemblies and environmentally responsive disorder elements may encode functions into proteins.