GPS 單點定位或稱絕對定位，傳統上使用虛擬距離觀測量，容易受到 電離層延遲影響，導致定位精度較差。因此，本文的目的為構建即時的區 域性電離層模型，以便能夠即時減弱電離層延遲量，提高單頻GPS 單點定 位的精度。 構建電離層模型的方法有很多種，而運用類神經網路為可能方法之一， 但是， 國內較少人探討。本研究嘗詴使用倒傳遞類神經網路(Back-propagation Artificial Neural Network)，構建即時的區域電離層模型，藉由選擇適當的神經訓練函數及隱藏層神經元，利用過去收集的已知參考站的雙頻GPS 資料，計算電離層延遲量，訓練類神經網路，直到精度合乎要求；再以檢核站GPS 資料，檢驗類神經網路預測電離層延遲的功效。 採用的實驗資料為臺南市政府e-GPS 系統所提供六個測站，2008 年1 月3 日到1 月5 日的GPS 資料，計算測站與GPS 衛星連線中假想的電離層 薄殼交點—電離層穿透點(Ionosphere Pierce Point, IPP）之地理位置(緯度φ、經度λ)，及太陽黑子數(sunspot numbers)等當作輸入值，IPP 的垂直電離層延遲當作輸出值，測詴包含單日、兩日以及不同的資料型態(IPP 點、網格點)等情況訓練類神經網路，藉由相對應的驗證資料，檢驗類神經網路的功效，最後將類神經網路的預估成果與全球電離層改正模型、雙頻GPS 資料計算的電離層延遲相比較，並根據改正率與統計特性，評估類神經網 路構建出的區域性電離層模型的成效。 由實驗成果顯示，構建的即時區域性電離層模型的標準差可小於±3TECU，並可改正約80%的電離層延遲誤差，故以類神經網路可有效的構 建出區域性的電離層模型。 / The conventional single point positioning using GPS pseudo rangemeasurements, are vulnerable to ionospheric errors, leading to poor positioningaccuracy. Constructing a real-time ionospheric model is one of the methods that can reduce the ionospheric errors and improve the single point positioning accuracy. Although there are many methods to construct regional ionosphere model,using artificial neural network (ANN) to construct a real-time ionospheric model is less to be mentioned. This study used back-propagation artificial neural network to estimate a regional real-time ionospheric model by selecting the appropriate training functions and the number of hidden layers and its’ nodes. The neural network had to be ‘trained’ by the computed TECs from reference stations’ duel-frequency GPS data until the required accuracy was achieved. The experimental data are collected from 6 e-GPS stations of Tainan city government on January 3 to January 5, 2008. The input values for the ANN includ the geographical location of the ionosphere pierce point (IPP) and solar activity (sunspot number). The output value are those IPPs’ vertical total electron content (VTEC). Different times range and data types (IPPs’ or raster data) for the impact of the ANN are tested. And then compared to Klobuchar model and global ionopheric model, according to the correct rate and the ΔTEC statistic table decide the effectiveness of ANN. According to the test results, the regional ionopheric model constructed by ANN can corrected 80% of the ionospheric errors, the standard deviation of ΔTEC is less than ±3TECU.

"July, 2003" / Includes bibliographical references (leaves 177-183) / xxii, 183 leaves : ill. (some col.) ; 30 cm. / Title page, contents and abstract only. The complete thesis in print form is available from the University Library. / Thesis (Ph.D.)--University of Adelaide, School of Chemistry and Physics, Discipline of Physics and Mathematical Physics, 2004

Les recherches décrites dans ces pages portent sur l'étude de l'aurore à protons par télédétection spatiale en ultraviolet lointain. Ce travail s'inscrit dans le cadre de la mission IMAGE, dont l'instrument FUV offre la possibilité d'observer les émissions aurorales dues à la précipitation d'électrons et de protons. L'imageur spectral SI12, construit au Centre Spatial de Liège, donne une image de la raie Lyman-alpha déplacée par effet Doppler produite par la désexcitation de l'hydrogène. Il permet l'observation globale de l'ovale auroral avec une résolution temporelle de 2 minutes. Les données couplées à un modèle de transport et de dégradation d'énergie des particules qui précipitent ont été utilisées pour étudier l'aurore à protons tant d'un point de vue morphologique que d'un point de vue quantitatif. La première étape du travail consistait à valider les observations et à calibrer la méthode développée pour obtenir les flux énergétiques des particules accélérées vers l'atmosphère à partir des taux de comptage SI12. Des comparaisons des observations SI12 et des mesures in situ de particules des satellites NOAA ont montré un désaccord de 50%, qui a été pris en considération dans la suite du travail. J'ai ensuite entrepris une étude statistique des caractéristiques morphologiques de l'ovale protonique. Cette statistique présente un très bon accord avec les études précédentes, bien que celles-ci soient basées sur des mesures locales de la précipitation de protons. Les résultats quantitatifs quant à l'intensité de la précipitation des protons ont montré une variation saisonnière, avec un maximum dans l'hémisphère estival. J'ai également mis en évidence l'influence de l'orientation de la composante nord/sud du champ magnétique interplanétaire et de la pression dynamique du vent solaire sur la précipitation de protons tant au point de vue de l'énergie accumulée durant la phase de croissance, que des processus de déclenchement de leur précipitation et des processus de précipitation eux-mêmes. L'analyse de la dynamique de l'ovale auroral protonique durant les phases de croissance des sous-tempêtes magnétiques a montré que le mouvement vers l'équateur des frontières de l'ovale pouvait être local, global ou une superposition des deux. Ce résultat est interprété comme la combinaison d'un étirement global de la magnétosphère dû à l'influence du vent solaire et d'un étirement local trouvant son origine dans le feuillet de plasma interne à la magnétosphère. Dans la dernière étape du travail, j'ai analysé les conséquences de la précipitation aurorale sur l'ionosphère. J'ai montré que les conductivités de Hall et de Pedersen et leur évolution temporelle pouvaient être déduites de la contribution des trois imageurs ultraviolets à une échelle spatiale globale. Le résultat principal de cette partie montre que la contribution des protons à la puissance et aux conductances aurorales ne peut localement pas être négligée par rapport à celle des électrons.

QC 20100618

This work was developed in a polygonal area that was established in an experimental place of Farm Liberdade, which is located in Tupantuba, a district of Santiago, RS. This research comprised a survey of a polygonal area including a GPS receptor of simple frequency in absolute mode, which aims at determining the coordinates of the vertices of an experimental area by using the code with and without corrections due to the propagation of signal through the atmosphere (troposphere and ionosphere). The different strategies of the processing of the code, which involved or not the corrections of ionosphere, used in this research were: I0 (without correction of ionosphere); I1 (with correction of ionosphere from the pseudo-distances PL1 and PL2); and I2 (with correction of ionosphere by the Klobuchar model). The different strategies of the processing of the code, which involved or not the corrections of troposphere, used in this research were: T0 (without correction of troposphere); T1 (with correction of troposphere by the Hopfield model); T2 (with correction of troposphere by Saastamoinen model); and T3 (with correction of ionosphere by Marini model). The values of the coordinates of the vertices from the polygonal area, which were obtained in the absolute positioning mode, considering different ways of correction of the ionospheric and tropospheric errors, were compared to the values of the coordinates of the vertices from the polygonal area obtained by the processing in the relative mode and considering the bearer phase (testimony) as being observable. In order to accomplish this comparison, it was realized the analysis of the regression among the values of the coordinates from the polygonal waypoints, which were obtained through different procedures that aimed at achieving the correlation coefficient (r), the Wilmont index of concordance (c) and the level of development of the strategy that was taken into consideration. Due to the analysis of the results, it was possible to conclude that there was no difference in the performance of the different strategies of corrections of errors. Furthermore, the positioning error is about 5m due to the propagation of the signal through the atmosphere when the absolute positioning mode is used. / O trabalho foi desenvolvido em uma poligonal implantada em área experimental situada na Fazenda Liberdade, distrito de Tupantuba, município de Santiago-RS. A pesquisa envolveu o levantamento de uma poligonal envolvendo um receptor GPS de simples freqüência, no modo absoluto, com o objetivo de determinar as coordenadas dos vértices de uma área experimental, utilizando como observável o código sem e com correções devido à propagação do sinal na atmosfera (troposfera e ionosfera). As diferentes estratégias de processamento do código envolvendo ou não as correções da ionosfera utilizadas neste trabalho foram I0 (sem correção da ionosfera), I1 (com correção da ionosfera a partir das pseudodistâncias PL1 e PL2) e I2 (com correção da ionosfera pelo modelo de Klobuchar). As diferentes estratégias de processamento do código envolvendo ou não as correções da troposfera utilizadas foram T0 (sem correção da troposfera), T1 (com correção da troposfera pelo modelo de Hopfield), T2 (com correção da troposfera pelo modelo de Saastamoinen) e T3 (com correção da ionosfera pelo modelo de Marini). Os valores das coordenadas dos vértices da poligonal obtidos no modo de posicionamento absoluto e tendo como observável o código e considerando diferentes formas de correção do erro ionosférico e do erro troposférico foram comparados com os valores das coordenadas dos vértices da poligonal obtidos com o processamento no modo relativo e tendo como observável a fase da portadora (testemunha). Para realizar a comparação foi feita analise de regressão entre os valores das coordenadas dos pontos da poligonal obtidas através dos diferentes procedimentos com o objetivo de se obter o coeficiente de correlação (r), o índice de concordância de Wilmont (c) e a classe de desempenho da estratégia considerada. A análise dos resultados obtidos permitiu concluir que não houve diferença no desempenho das diferentes estratégias de correção dos erros e que o erro de posicionamento devido à propagação do sinal na sua passagem pela atmosfera quando se utiliza o modo de posicionamento absoluto e como observável o código é da ordem de 5m, aproximadamente.

Orientador: João Francisco Galera Monico / Banca: José Tadeu Garcia Tommaselli / Banca: Edvaldo Simões da Fonseca Júnior / Resumo: Dados de receptores GPS de dupla freqüência são, em geral, processados utilizando a combinação ion-free, o que permite eliminar os efeitos de primeira ordem da ionosfera. Porém, os efeitos de segunda e terceira ordem, geralmente, são negligenciados no processamento de dados GPS. Nesse trabalho, esses efeitos foram levados em consideração no processamento dos dados. Foram investigados os modelos matemáticos associados a esses efeitos, as transformações envolvendo o campo magnético da Terra e a utilização do TEC advindo dos Mapas Globais da Ionosfera ou calculados a partir das pseudodistâncias. Numa outra investigação independente, os efeitos residuais de primeira ordem da ionosfera, resultantes da dupla diferença da pseudodistância e da fase da onda portadora, foram considerados como incógnitas no ajustamento. Porém, esses efeitos residuais foram tratados como pseudo-observações, associados aos processos aleatórios random walk e white noise e, adicionados ao algoritmo de filtro de Kalman. Dessa forma, o modelo matemático preserva a característica de número inteiro da ambigüidade da fase, facilitando a aplicação de algoritmos de solução da ambigüidade, que no caso desse trabalho, utilizou-se o método LAMBDA. Para o caso da consideração dos efeitos de segunda e terceira ordem da ionosfera, foram realizados processamentos de dados GPS envolvendo o modo relativo e o Posicionamento por Ponto Preciso. Os resultados mostraram que a não consideração desses efeitos no processamento dos dados GPS pode introduzir variações da ordem de três a quatro milímetros nas coordenadas das estações. / Abstract: Data from dual frequency receiver, in general, are processed using the ion-free combination that allows the elimination of the first order ionospheric effects. However, the second and third order ionospheric effects, generally, are neglected in the GPS data processing. In this work, these effects were taken into account in the GPS data processing. In this case, it was investigated the mathematical models associated with the second and third order effects, the transformations involving the Earth magnetic field and the use of TEC from Ionosphere Global Maps or calculated from the pseudoranges. The first order ionosphere residual effects, resulting from pseudorange and phase double difference, were taken into account as unknown in the adjustment. However, these effects were treated as pseudo-observables and it was associated with the random process random walk and white noise and added to the Kalman filter algorithm. Therefore, the mathematical model preserves the phase ambiguity "integerness", facilitating the application of ambiguity resolution approaches, which in the case of this work, it was used the LAMBDA method. / Mestre

Solar transient eruptions are the main cause of interplanetary-magnetospheric disturbances leading to the phenomena known as geomagnetic storms. Eruptive solar events such as coronal mass ejections (CMEs) are currently considered the main cause of geomagnetic storms (GMS). GMS are strong perturbations of the Earth’s magnetic field that can affect space-borne and ground-based technological systems. The solar-terrestrial impact on modern technological systems is commonly known as Space Weather. Part of the research study described in this thesis was to investigate and establish a relationship between GMS (periods with Dst ≤ −50 nT) and their associated solar and interplanetary (IP) properties during solar cycle (SC) 23. Solar and IP geoeffective properties associated with or without CMEs were investigated and used to qualitatively characterise both intense and moderate storms. The results of this analysis specifically provide an estimate of the main sources of GMS during an average 11-year solar activity period. This study indicates that during SC 23, the majority of intense GMS (83%) were associated with CMEs, while the non-associated CME storms were dominant among moderate storms. GMS phenomena are the result of a complex and non-linear chaotic system involving the Sun, the IP medium, the magnetosphere and ionosphere, which make the prediction of these phenomena challenging. This thesis also explored the predictability of both the occurrence and strength of GMS. Due to their nonlinear driving mechanisms, the prediction of GMS was attempted by the use of neural network (NN) techniques, known for their non-linear modelling capabilities. To predict the occurrence of storms, a combination of solar and IP parameters were used as inputs in the NN model that proved to predict the occurrence of GMS with a probability of 87%. Using the solar wind (SW) and IP magnetic field (IMF) parameters, a separate NN-based model was developed to predict the storm-time strength as measured by the global Dst and ap geomagnetic indices, as well as by the locally measured K-index. The performance of the models was tested on data sets which were not part of the NN training process. The results obtained indicate that NN models provide a reliable alternative method for empirically predicting the occurrence and strength of GMS on the basis of solar and IP parameters. The demonstrated ability to predict the geoeffectiveness of solar and IP transient events is a key step in the goal towards improving space weather modelling and prediction.

Modelling ionospheric total electron content (TEC) is an important area of interest for radio wave propagation, geodesy, surveying, the understanding of space weather dynamics and error correction in relation to Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNNS) applications. With the utilisation of improved ionosonde technology coupled with the use of GNSS, the response of technological systems due to changes in the ionosphere during both quiet and disturbed conditions can be historically inferred. TEC values are usually derived from GNSS measurements using mathematically intensive algorithms. However, the techniques used to estimate these TEC values depend heavily on the availability of near-real time GNSS data, and therefore, are sometimes unable to generate complete datasets. This thesis investigated possibilities for the modelling of TEC values derived from the South African Global Positioning System (GPS)receiver network using linear regression methods and artificial neural networks (NNs). GPS TEC values were derived using the Adjusted Spherical Harmonic Analysis (ASHA) algorithm. Considering TEC and the factors that influence its variability as “dependent and independent variables” respectively, the capabilities of linear regression methods and NNs for TEC modelling were first investigated using a small dataset from two GPS receiver stations. NN and regression models were separately developed and used to reproduce TEC fluctuations at different stations not included in the models’ development. For this purpose, TEC was modelled as a function of diurnal variation, seasonal variation, solar and magnetic activities. Comparative analysis showed that NN models provide predictions of GPS TEC that were an improvement on those predicted by the regression models developed. A separate study to empirically investigate the effects of solar wind on GPS TEC was carried out. Quantitative results indicated that solar wind does not have a significant influence on TEC variability. The final TEC simulation model developed makes use of the NN technique to find the relationship between historical TEC data variations and factors that are known to influence TEC variability (such as solar and magnetic activities, diurnal and seasonal variations and the geographical locations of the respective GPS stations) for the purposes of regional TEC modelling and mapping. The NN technique in conjunction with interpolation and extrapolation methods makes it possible to construct ionospheric TEC maps and to analyse the spatial and temporal TEC behaviour over Southern Africa. For independent validation, modelled TEC values were compared to ionosonde TEC and the International Reference Ionosphere (IRI) generated TEC values during both quiet and disturbed conditions. This thesis provides a comprehensive guide on the development of TEC models for predicting ionospheric variability over the South African region, and forms a significant contribution to ionospheric modelling efforts in Africa.

Radio signals transmitted by GPS satellites orbiting the Earth are modulated as they propagate through the electrically charged plasmasphere and ionosphere in the near-Earth space environment. Through a linear combination of GPS range and phase measurements observed on two carrier frequencies by terrestrial-based GPS receivers, the ionospheric total electron content (TEC) along oblique GPS signal paths may be quantified. Simultaneous observations of signals transmitted by multiple GPS satellites and observed from a network of South African dual frequency GPS receivers, constitute a spatially dense ionospheric measurement source over the region. A new methodology, based on an adjusted spherical harmonic (ASHA) expansion, was developed to estimate diurnal vertical TEC over the region using GPS observations over the region. The performance of the ASHA methodology to estimate diurnal TEC and satellite and receiver differential clock biases (DCBs) for a single GPS receiver was first tested with simulation data and subsequently applied to observed GPS data. The resulting diurnal TEC profiles estimated from GPS observations compared favourably to measurements from three South African ionosondes and two other GPS-based methodologies for 2006 solstice and equinox dates. The ASHA methodology was applied to calculating diurnal two-dimensional TEC maps from multiple receivers in the South African GPS network. The space physics application of the newly developed methodology was demonstrated by investigating the ionosphere’s behaviour during a severe geomagnetic storm and investigating the long-term ionospheric stability in support of the proposed Square Kilometre Array (SKA) radio astronomy project. The feasibility of employing the newly developed technique in an operational near real-time system for estimating and dissimenating TEC values over Southern Africa using observations from a regional GPS receiver network, was investigated.

Detailed study of the spatial correlations of day-to-day ionospheric TEC variations on a global scale was performed for four 30-day-long periods in 2004 (January, March/April, June/July, September/October) using observations from more than 1000 ground-based GPS receivers. In order to obtain the spatial correlations, initially, the day-to-day variability was calculated by first mapping the observed slant TEC values for each 5-minute GPS ground receiver-satellite pair to the vertical and then differencing it with its corresponding value from the previous day. This resulted in more than 150 million values of day-to-day change in TEC (delta TEC). Next, statistics were performed on the delta TEC values. The study indicates strong correlationsbetween geomagnetic conjugate points, and these correlations are larger at low latitudes than at middle latitudes. Typical correlation lengths, defined as the angular separation at which the correlation coefficient drops to 0.7, were found to be larger at middle latitudes than at low latitudes. The correlation lengths are larger during daytime than during nighttime. The results indicate that the spatial correlation is largely independent of season. These spatial correlations are important for understanding the physical mechanisms that cause ionospheric weather variability and are also relevant to data assimilation. In an effort to better understand the effects of neutral wind and electric field on the TEC variability, a physics-based numerical Ionosphere/Plasmasphere Model (IPM) was used. The model solves the transport equations for the six ions, O+, NO+, O2+, N2+, H+, and He+, on convecting flux tubes that realistically follow the geomagnetic field. Two of the inputs required by the IPM are the thermospheric neutral wind and the low-latitude electric field, which can be given by existing empirical model or externally specified by the user. To study the relative importance of the neutral wind and the electric field for the TEC variations, these two model inputs were externally modified and the resulting variations in TEC were compared. Neutral wind and electric field modifications were introduced at three different local times in order to investigate the effect of different start times of the imposed perturbations on TEC. This study focused on modeled low- and middlelatitude TEC variations in the afternoon and post-sunset at three different longitude sectors for medium solar activity and low geomagnetic activity. The largest changes in TEC were found predominantly in the equatorial anomaly, and a significant longitudinal dependence was observed. The results indicate that the perturbation effect on the TEC at 2100 LT varied nonlinearly with the elapsed time after the imposed neutral wind and electric field perturbations. An important outcome of this study is that daytime neutral wind and/or electric field modifications will lead to essentially identical TEC changes in the 2100 local time sector.