Lupane and Hwange districts fall under natural region IV and V and lie in the semi-arid regions of Zimbabwe with low and erratic mean annual rainfall not exceeding 600mm. Seventy percent of Zimbabwe’s population lives in communal areas, whose livelihood is based on agriculture. The communities in these areas mainly practice mixed farming systems. However, crop production is constrained by water availability and suitable production techniques. As a result households in these areas are experiencing worsening levels of household food insecurity. Two irrigation schemes were identified for this study and these are located in these two districts. Tshongokwe irrigation scheme is located in Lupane district and Lukosi irrigation scheme is located in Hwange district and these irrigation schemes are about 25 hectares in size. Lupane and Hwange districts are considered to be one of the most food insecure areas in the country because of the frequent droughts and unreliable rainfall in the region. The major tool of enquiry in this study was the questionnaire which was used to collect data from the households that farm on irrigated land and those that farm on dryland farming. Household and farm characteristics were collected using structured questionnaires with the help of locally recruited and trained enumerators. Agricultural production, household consumption and marketing of agricultural produce were accessed using the questionnaire to establish problems experienced by farmers. The main objective of this study was to investigate the determinants of household food security using a logistic regression model. The model was initially fitted with thirteen variables, selected from factors identified by previous researchers that affect food security in communal areas. Six variables were found to be significant at 1, 5 and 10 percent significance level and all had the expected signs except farm size. These factors include access to irrigation, farm size, cattle ownership, fertilizer application, household size and per capita aggregate production. The results obtained were further analyzed to compute partial effects on continuous variables and change in probabilities on the discrete variables for the significant factors in the logistic regression model. Analysis of partial effects revealed that household size, farm size, cattle ownership and per capita aggregate production lead to a greater probability of household being food secure. Change in probability results showed that having access to irrigation and using fertilizer can increase the probability of household being food secure The findings of this study highlight a positive and significant relationship between access to irrigation, fertilizer application, cattle ownership, per capita aggregate production to household food security. Household size and farm size have a negative and significant relationship on household food security. This study shows the effectiveness of irrigated farming over dryland farming in the semi-arid areas. The results show increased agricultural production, crop diversification and higher incomes from irrigation farming as compared to dry land farming. Irrigation farming has enabled many households to diversify their source of income and generate more income. Irrigation has enabled households with irrigation not only to feed themselves throughout the year but also to invest on non-agricultural goods and services from incomes received from crop sales Based on the results from the logistic regression model, it can be concluded that household size, farm size, per capita aggregate production, cattle ownership, fertilizer application and access to irrigation have a positive effect on household food security and the magnitude of changes in conditional probabilities have an impact on household food security.

The major aim of this study was to analyse the dynamics of stakeholder participation in the agricultural sector during the first five years of the water reform process in Zimbabwe. Specific reference is made to water allocation, conflict management and the payment of costs related to water use. Stakeholders investigated are those in communal smallholder irrigation schemes, large-scale commercial white and black farms and those resettled under the government's fast track land resettlement programme. The study was undertaken in the Middle Manyame Subcatchment area, which falls under the Manyame Catchment area.

The major aim of this study was to analyse the dynamics of stakeholder participation in the agricultural sector during the first five years of the water reform process in Zimbabwe. Specific reference is made to water allocation, conflict management and the payment of costs related to water use. Stakeholders investigated are those in communal smallholder irrigation schemes, large-scale commercial white and black farms and those resettled under the government's fast track land resettlement programme. The study was undertaken in the Middle Manyame Subcatchment area, which falls under the Manyame Catchment area.

This study provides an overview of the impact of small scale irrigation on food security using the case study of Inkosikazi irrigation scheme in the Bubi District of Zimbabwe. The study discovers a set of political, economical, social, technological, legal, and environmental factors that are holding the district under food insecurity. The communities have been relying on food aid from international NGOs like World Vision, the Catholic Relief Services and Care International. This dependence has further crippled them into more vulnerability and poverty as their productive capabilities cannot be explored. The communities of Wards 4 and 5 established the Inkosikazi irrigation scheme with the assistance of World Vision with the sole objective of improving their nutritional status. Even though the project took six years to complete, it would also cater for improved income levels of the communities. This study assesses the impact of the Inkosikazi irrigation scheme using the activities of 240 irrigation farmers on landholding plots of 0.25ha each. No doubt the establishment of the irrigation scheme has contributed to new life improvement perspectives for a community that was once perceived as vulnerable, poor, fragile, exposed and incapacitated. The project stands out as one of the lasting initiatives to reduce the food trap in the district and indicates similar initiatives can be applied for other communities in Zimbabwe in general for the same reasons. / Development Studies / M.A. (Development Studies)

This study provides an overview of the impact of small scale irrigation on food security using the case study of Inkosikazi irrigation scheme in the Bubi District of Zimbabwe. The study discovers a set of political, economical, social, technological, legal, and environmental factors that are holding the district under food insecurity. The communities have been relying on food aid from international NGOs like World Vision, the Catholic Relief Services and Care International. This dependence has further crippled them into more vulnerability and poverty as their productive capabilities cannot be explored. The communities of Wards 4 and 5 established the Inkosikazi irrigation scheme with the assistance of World Vision with the sole objective of improving their nutritional status. Even though the project took six years to complete, it would also cater for improved income levels of the communities. This study assesses the impact of the Inkosikazi irrigation scheme using the activities of 240 irrigation farmers on landholding plots of 0.25ha each. No doubt the establishment of the irrigation scheme has contributed to new life improvement perspectives for a community that was once perceived as vulnerable, poor, fragile, exposed and incapacitated. The project stands out as one of the lasting initiatives to reduce the food trap in the district and indicates similar initiatives can be applied for other communities in Zimbabwe in general for the same reasons. / Development Studies / M. A. (Development Studies)

PhDRDV / Institute for Rural Development / Throughout the world, irrigation is appreciated because of its immense contribution to agricultural production, food and nutrition security, combating poverty and enhancing development, especially in rural areas. The worsening effects of climate change on rainfall patterns as well as food and nutrition insecurity in sub-Saharan Africa are elevating the importance of irrigation schemes in smallholder farming. However, studies conducted in sub-Saharan Africa indicate that the performance of irrigation schemes remains suboptimal. In addition, the studies are highly skewed towards technical and physical dimensions of the schemes and ignore social aspects such as gender. Consideration of gender imperatives would help define and structure who uses water, when and how. This situation necessitated carrying out the PhD thesis research, aiming to explore and explain inherent gender dynamics in water use and management. The ultimate aim was to propose intervention strategies anchored on differential gender power dynamics embedded in irrigation water use in smallholder irrigation schemes. Specific objectives adopted for the study of the Nyanyadzi irrigation scheme in Manicaland Province of Zimbabwe were to: 1) assess the gendered nature of irrigation water use; 2) determine the gendered nature and extent of participation of male and female members of the irrigation scheme in water management; 3) identify the gendered challenges and constraints to irrigation water use; and 4) propose strategies for improved access and management of water. An exploratory sequentially integrated mixed method research design was used in the two phased PhD studies. Seventy three farmers (26 men and 47 women) were the respondents in the first phase in which qualitative data were collected. The gender analysis matrix and activity profile were used to gather and document the perceptions of men and women farmers relating to use of irrigation water. One hundred and nine conveniently sampled respondents (47 men and 62 women) were the source of data in the second phase of the study, which was quantitative and confirmatory in nature. A questionnaire, requiring responses on a Likert-type scale ranging from 1 (strongly disagree) to 5 (strongly agree) was used to collect data. Qualitative data collected during the exploratory phase were analysed using the Cresswell (2013) Thematic Content Analysis technique. Pair-wise ranking was conducted to determine the major constraints to access, use and management of irrigation water. The Predictive Analytics Software Statistics 18 for Windows (PASW Inc: Chicago, IL, USA) was used to analyse quantitative data. Gender, age, marital status, location of irrigation plot, plot ownership and level of education were the independent variables used. Dependent variables included nature of water use, participation in water management and constraints to water use. Cross-tabulation was carried out and the iii Pearson’s Chi-square test for association used to establish if relationships existed between variables. Statistical significance was considered at P < 0.05. The Cramer’s V post-hoc test was performed to measure the strength of association of the perceptions which the Chi-square test had determined to be significantly different. The uses of canal water were found to be varied and gendered. More women than men used canal water for reproductive purposes such as laundry and bathing. Highly significant positive associations (P < 0.01) were observed among gender, age, marital status, ownership of irrigation plot and level of education with use of irrigation water for laundry, bathing, livestock watering and other communal uses. However, location of plot was not associated with different types of water uses (P > 0.05). With respect to farmers’ participation in meetings, contributing in meetings, repair of canals, provision of labour in canal maintenance, hiring labour for canal maintenance and contributing cash for canal repairs and maintenance, highly significant positive associations (P < 0.01) were observed with gender, age, marital status, level of education, and ownership and location of irrigation plot. Level of education of the farmer was observed to be not associated with his/her attendance of meetings (P > 0.05). Plot location was negatively associated with participation, provision of labour for maintenance, contribution of cash and hiring labour for canal repairs (P > 0.05). Exorbitant payments for using water were regarded as the major constraint to performance of the smallholder irrigation scheme. Highly significant positive associations (P < 0.01) were observed between gender and plot location, and all the constraints to water use that the farmers identified. The constraints ranged from unequal water distribution between and within men and women, and upstream and downstream farmers; unfriendly water delivery times; conflicts and corrupt practices in water distribution; and discrimination with respect to schedules of delivering water. Overall, gender imbalance in the use and management of irrigation water existed. This was evident in the disparities in uses and users of canal water that followed gender and social lines. Men dominated decision making in water management, especially in meetings. In contrast, women dominated in implementation stages mainly in relation to provision of labour for cleaning and maintaining water canals. Considering all the results obtained in the current study, it can be concluded that a combination of socio-economic and socio-cultural factors caused the water problems that the Nyanyadzi irrigation scheme experienced. The need for introducing gender-sensitive interventions in use and management of irrigation water was evident. Thus, gender needs, roles and responsibilities should be reconceptualised so as to align them with the socio-cultural context of the Nyanyadzi community. In addition to this, the fact that both men and women iv are not homogeneous interest groups should be factored into irrigation water management. Lastly, it is crucial to incorporate various social hierarchies that interact with gender to influence irrigation water use and management. How this can be done deserves further scientific investigation. / NRF

M.Sc.(Geography) / This study aimed at examining the social and economic impact of rural irrigation schemes with a particular focus on the Lower Gweru Irrigation scheme. The general objective of this study was to assess if rural irrigation schemes can act as livelihood security assets in transforming rural livelihoods, reduce poverty and attain food security in light of climate change. Results are based on findings from self-administered questionnaires directed at farmers and irrigation stakeholders, and face to face interviews involving farmers and stakeholders. Using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, Microsoft excel and Health 24 web BMI calculator it was concluded that; Lower Gweru schemes, is a source of livelihood security securing food security, reduce poverty and creates rural employment. Regardless of various challenges faced by rural irrigation farmers, irrigations act as poverty and climate change buffers, providing an opportunity for communities to raise their Human Development Index and attain sustainable development. / Department of Geography

This study aimed at examining the social and economic impact of rural irrigation schemes with a particular focus on the Lower Gweru Irrigation scheme. The general objective of this study was to assess if rural irrigation schemes can act as livelihood security assets in transforming rural livelihoods, reduce poverty and attain food security in light of climate change. Results are based on findings from self-administered questionnaires directed at farmers and irrigation stakeholders, and face to face interviews involving farmers and stakeholders. Using Statistical Package for the Social Sciences, Microsoft excel and Health 24 web BMI calculator it was concluded that; Lower Gweru schemes, is a source of livelihood security securing food security, reduce poverty and creates rural employment. Regardless of various challenges faced by rural irrigation farmers, irrigations act as poverty and climate change buffers, providing an opportunity for communities to raise their Human Development Index and attain sustainable development. / Geography / M.Sc.(Geography)