Thermodynamic, viscous and structural properties of melts and glasses in the AlCl3-ZnCl2 system have been investigated. The two pure components are fundamentally different in the molten state. Both metal atoms are four coordinated, however, ZnCl2 forms a corner sharing tetrahedral network whereas AlCl3 is a dimer, Al2Cl6. ZnCl2 is one of two known single component halide glass formers and additions of AlCl3 have shown to form stable glasses. The glass forming ability remains far into the binary AlCl3-ZnCl2 system. The phase diagram of the AlCl3-ZnCl2 system has been investigated by differential thermal analysis. The system is a simple eutectic system, and the eutectic point was observed at 116±2°C and 0.52±0.05 mole fraction ZnCl2. The system is highly glass forming in the range from pure ZnCl2 up to about 0.46 mole fraction ZnCl2. Glass transition temperatures measured by differential scanning calorimetry (heating rate 10 K/min) were recorded from 115°C for pure ZnCl2 to -5.5°C for 0.46 mole fraction ZnCl2. The reduced width of the glass transition ( Tg'-Tg )/Tg showed a maximum at 0.80 mole fraction ZnCl2 giving a minimum in fragility at this composition. The density of AlCl3-ZnCl2 melts has been determined using volume measurements in sealed quartz tubes. The molar volumes showed a negative deviation from ideality with a minimum at ~0.33 mole fraction ZnCl2 (ZnAl2Cl8). The volume expansion coefficient is strongly reduced from pure AlCl3 to ZnCl2, and the excess volume of mixing is strongly increasing with temperature. A simple model using molecular Al2Cl6, ZnCl2 and ZnAl2Cl8 units was used to calculate equilibrium constants for the reaction of pure components ZnCl2 and Al2Cl6 to ZnAl2Cl8. The density data showed that molecular ZnAl2Cl8 became more stable with increasing temperature. The viscosity of molten AlCl3-ZnCl2 in the range from pure ZnCl2 to 0.40 mole fraction ZnCl2 has been measured as a function of temperature by an oscillation cup method. The melts with ZnCl2 content higher than 0.60 mole fraction ZnCl2 exhibited non-Arrhenius behavior. The viscosity clearly decreases with increasing AlCl3 content. However, the viscosity of ZnCl2 is affected less by addition of AlCl3 compared to addition of ionic chlorides which form terminal chloride bonds. The fragility of the melts obtained from a reduced Arrhenius plot, were observed to decrease with addition of AlCl3 up to 0.80 mole fraction ZnCl2. At higher AlCl3 content the fragility increases in line with the more molecular nature of the melt. The present study has also demonstrated that the oscillation cup viscometer can be applied to record viscosities as high as 3 Pa·s. IR spectroscopy has been performed on melts in the whole compositional range of the AlCl3-ZnCl2 system. The spectra were recorded using an IR reflection method of thin films (>10 µm). Compensation for any splitting of strong bands was performed by defining a specular reflectance, r*, where a thick melt (2-3 mm)\ was used as reference. For all the mixtures a splitting of the anti-symmetric stretching frequency ν3(F2) for the AlCl4 tetrahedron into three bands was observed. This indicated a C2v perturbation of the Td symmetry. From this observation it was proposed that the AlCl4 units were always terminal consisting of two bridging and two terminal chlorines. The melts with compositions from 0.33 mole fraction ZnCl2 to pure Al2Cl6 are proposed to consist of a mixture of Al2Cl6 and ZnAl2Cl8. The temperature dependence of the 0.20 mole fraction ZnCl2 spectra showed that the amount of ZnAl2Cl8 increased relative to the amount of Al2Cl6 with increasing temperature. At 0.40 - 0.60 mole fraction ZnCl2, the melts were proposed to remain molecular in nature, where the ZnCl4 tetrahedra were enclosed by edge sharing AlCl4 terminal units. At higher ZnCl2 content or higher temperatures the connectivity of the molten structure is shifted from edge sharing AlCl4 units to corner sharing AlCl4 units bonded to two ZnCl4 tetrahedra.

Capillary electrophoresis-mass spectrometry has been used successfully for the analysis of a wide range of analytes such as chiral local anaesthetics, sulphonated reactive dyes and endogenous neurotransmitters and neuropeptides. The partial filling technique was used in CE-MS for chiral separation of bupivacaine and ropivacaine using the non-volatile selector β-cyclodextrin. By only partially filling the capillary with selector and using capillaries coated with polyacrylamide to suppress the electroosmotic flow, introduction of the selector into the mass spectrometer was avoided. An impurity of 0.25% of the R-enantiomer of ropivacaine in the S-form could be detected. The partial filling technique was developed further using CE employing two different selectors in separate plugs in the capillary. This enhanced the separation efficiency and offered greater flexibility in controlling the separation. By using transient-isotachophoresis (tITP)-CE-MS it was possible to concentrate and detect classical neurotransmitters and neuropeptides with masses ranging from 104 Da to 1642 Da. γ -Aminopropyltriethoxysilane coated capillaries were used to minimize adsorption of the peptides onto to capillary surface. Endogenous dopamine, glutamate, γ-aminobutyric acid (GABA), acetylcholine, methionine-enkephalin and substance P 1-7 were detected in the striatum of marmoset monkey. Sulphonated dyes obtained from single textile fibres were analysed using CE-MS. Capillary electrophoresis was found to be a good way of removing the excess amounts of glucose present in the sample that would otherwise interfere with the electrospray ionisation. Automatic function switching, originally developed for use together with liquid chromatography, was found to be a great method for acquiring MS/MS data when doing infusion experiments saving both time and sample without decreasing the quality of the MS/MS data. It was also found to be a more time efficient way than using the precursor ion scanning mode on the Q-TOF to obtain precursor ion data.

Solvolysis reactions of a range of tertiary substrates in largely aqueous solvents were studied in such respects as β-deuterium kinetic isotope effects, linear free energy relationships and stereochemistry. Solvolysis of the fluorene derivatives 9-methyl–9-(2´-X-2´-propyl)fluorene (<b>1-X,</b> X = Cl, Br, OOCCF3) involves a very short-lived carbocation intermediate. The fraction of alkene is increased by addition of general bases, which can be expressed by a Brφnsted parameter β = 0.07. The kinetic deuterium isotope effects vary with solvent composition in a way which is not consistent with a common carbocation intermediate which has time to choose between dehydronation and addition of a solvent water molecule. In the absence of bases, the reaction of 4-chloro-4-(4´-nitrophenyl)pentan-2-one (<b>2-Cl</b>) proceeds through a short-lived carbocation intermediate yielding 4-(4´-nitrophenyl)-2-oxopent-4-ene (<b>2-</b><b>t</b>-ne)as the main elimination product. Addition of acetate ion and other weak bases results in the base-promoted E2 (or E1cb) reaction to give (E)-4-(4´-nitrophenyl)-2-oxopent-3-ene (<b>2-</b><b>E</b>-ne) and (Z)-4-(4´-nitrophenyl)-2-oxopent-3-ene(<b>2-</b><b>Z</b>-ne). There is no evidence for a water-promoted E2 (or E1cb) reaction. The stereochemistry studies of elimination from (R,S and S,R)-[1-(3´-fluoro)phenyl-2-methyl]cyclopentyl-p-nitrobenzoate (<b>3-PNB</b>) and its (R,R and S,S)isomer <b>3´-PNB</b> and (R,S and S,R)-[1´-(3´´-fluoro)phenyl-2´-methylcyclopentyl]-2,2,2-trifluoroacetate(<b>3-OOCCF</b><b>3</b>) exclude the concerted pericyclic elimination mechanism for formation of the alkene 1-(3´-fluoro)phenyl-2-methylcyclopentene(<b>3-</b><b>m</b>-ne). The effects of added thiocyanate ion and halide ions on the solvolysis reaction are discussed. Mass spectrometry analysis showed complete incorporation of the labeled oxygen from solvent water into the product 2-hydroxy-2-phenyl-3-butene (<b>4-OH</b>), confirming that it is the tertiary carbon-oxygen bond that is broken in the acid-catalyzed solvolysis of 2-methoxy-2-phenyl-3-butene (<b>4-OMe</b>). The mechanism for the dominant formation of the less stable <b>4-OH</b> is discussed.

The actual signal recorded with an analytical instrument is not always a true reflection of the analysed sample. In this thesis a further insight of the atmospheric pressure ionisation processes electrospray (ESI) and atmospheric pressure chemical ionisation (APCI) has been endeavoured, to provide a deeper understanding of and ways to minimize this bias. A response model for ESI has been modified and used to study the influence of solvent composition on the observed mass spectrometric signal. The response model divides the response into an analyte partitioning coefficient and an instrumental response factor. A number of experimental parameters influencing the response were investigated including spray position relative to the orifice, spray potential, nebulizer and curtain gas flow rates, ionic strength and organic content of the sprayed solution. The history of the generated droplets turned out to be of significant importance to both the partitioning coefficients and the instrumental response factor. Furthermore, it was found that the total ionic strength and not only the electrolyte concentration will influence the instrumental response factor. In addition, based on the importance of hydrophobicity and electrophoretic mobility, a model was proposed for the ion distribution within the electrosprayed droplets. The coupling of an electrochemical (EC) cell to a mass spectrometric (MS) system has been evaluated. The coupling of the EC cell to the MS was made to decouple the cell from the high voltage circuit of the ESI. The feasibility for analyte ionisation, sample pre-concentration and solvent exchange as well as studying redox reaction products was shown.

The Ru(arene)[(1S, 3R, 4R)-3-(Hydroxymethyl)-2-azabicyclo[2.2.1]heptane catalyst was optimized as ligand in the asymmetric transfer hydrogenation of ketones and resulted in increased activity and enantioselectivity of the catalyst. Dioxolane substitution at the rear end of the amino alcohol ligand and introduction of a (R)-methyl substituent yielded a catalyst that reduced acetophenone in 96% enantiomeric excess in 90 minutes with a substrate to catalyst molar ratio of 5000. A diversity of substituted aromatic ketones was reduced with excellent rate and enantioselectivity. Based on experimental and computational results, a study of the origin of the enantioselectivity was conducted. A combination of electrostatic, steric, dispersion forces and solvation effects was suggested to be the cause of the stereo discrimination. A set of amino sulfides built upon the 2-azabicyclo and the cyclohexane structures were prepared and tested as ligands in the enantioselective transfer hydrogenation of acetophenone with [IrCl(COD)]2 as metal precursor. With this type of catalysts, the reaction rates were good but the enantioselectivity unsatisfactory with 70% as the highest obtained enantiomeric excess. The first enantioselective reduction of aromatic 2H-azirines was accomplished by using the asymmetric transfer hydrogenation protocol. Aromatic azirines were reduced to yield chiral aziridines with up to 72% enantiomeric excess and good yields. The enantioselectivity and reactivity of the reaction were strongly influenced by substituents on the aromatic and aliphatic moiety of the substrate.

[11C]Carbon monoxide in low concentrations has been used in palladium- or seleniummediated carbonylation reactions such as the synthesis of 11C-imides, hydrazides, amides, carboxylic acids, esters, carbothioates, ketones and carbamoyl compounds. In these reactions aryl iodides have been used in most cases. However, less reactive aryl triflate, chloride and bromides were activated using tetrabutylammonium iodide. The reactivities of nucleophiles may have influence on the radiochemical yield of the 11Clabelled compounds. Carboxyamination of aryl halides using aniline derivatives yielded 10% of the corresponding 11C-amide. However, the radiochemical yields increased significantly when the aniline derivatives were treated with lithium bis(trimethylsilyl)amide. In contrast, this reagent did not improve the radiochemical yields when primary amines such as methylamine and benzylamine were used. In these cases the radiochemical yields were improved by using pempidine. 11C-Esterification usually gave low yields. However, the radiochemical yields of 11C-esters could be improved by using magnesium bromide and pempidine. An excess of ligand may have a significant impact on palladium-promoted carbonylation reaction. The radiochemical yields of 11C-ketones were improved when using excess amounts of tri-o-tolylphosphine. (13C)Carbon monoxide may be utilized for the synthesis of 13C-substituated compounds in order to confirm the position of 11C-labelling.

Aspartyl proteases can generally be inhibited by peptide mimics containing an uncleavable peptide bond isostere at the proposed cleavage site. One such peptide bond isostere is the hydroxyethylamine moiety, which in this thesis has successfully been incorporated in potential inhibitors of the HIV-1-protease as well as the malarial proteases plasmepsin I and II. The human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) has during the last 20 years given rise to a new fast-spread epidemic. The virus protease is one of the foremost targets for drug intervention. In an attempt to improve an earlier design, a P1'-anthranilic acid was exchanged for all four isomers of 2-aminocyclopentanecarboxylic acid, which were synthesized from racemic starting materials, the trans isomers via a novel synthetic route. None of the isomers enhanced potency as compared to the anthranilic acid. Because of increasing development of resistance, the pharmaceutical intervention with malaria is becoming rapidly more difficult. A prominent new target for drug research is the hemoglobin degradation pathway. Two of the many proteases involved in this pathway are plasmepsin I and II. Two series of peptide mimics with the hydroxyethylamine were prepared and tested against these enzymes as well as against the similar human protease cathepsin D. In the first series the central nitrogen of the target compounds is a secondary amine, derived from natural and unnatural amino acids, the side-chain of which was to bind in the S1'-site of the proteases. It was found that para-aryl substituted phenylalanines resulted in the most active inhibitors. While the P1- and P2-side-chains were kept constant at benzyl and isopropyl respectively, the P3 capping carboxylic acid was varied with a set of diverse carboxylic acids. It was found that many of the carboxylic acids were acceptable. A selection of compounds was tested for inhibition of parasite growth in infected human erythrocytes and found to be active. In the target compounds of the second series the P1'-side-chain was moved from the α-carbon of the initial amino acids to the adjacent nitrogen, thus rendering this a tertiary amine. The SAR of these compounds suggests that this side-chain cannot be larger than benzyl, which is in sharp contrast to the first series, where both isomers of phenylalanine (i.e. a benzyl group on the α-carbon) render inactive compounds. Most of the compounds show a good degree of selectivity for the plasmepsins over cathepsin D, even though a few good inhibitors of the human enzyme could be identified also.

Carbon-carbon bond formation reactions are among the most important processes in chemistry, as they represent key steps in the synthesis of more complex molecules from simple precursors. This thesis describes mainly the development of novel regioselective applications of the mild and versatile palladium-catalyzed carbon-carbon coupling method, commonly known as the Heck reaction. In addition, this thesis will focus on environmentally friendly developments of the Heck reaction. Novel ligand-controlled internal Heck vinylations of vinyl ethers and enamides to form branched electron-rich dienes were performed with high regioselectivity. The vinylation of 2-hydroxyethyl vinyl ether permits a chemoselective transformation of a vinylic triflate or bromide into a blocked α,β-unsaturated methyl ketone. Furthermore, a simple separation of the palladium catalyst was achieved with new fluorous-tagged bidentate ligands in combination with fluorous solid phase extraction. The reaction times could be reduced up to 1000 times with controlled microwave heating in the palladium-catalyzed reactions with, in the majority of cases, retained, high selectivity. The development of a “green” regioselective arylation and vinylation method relying on an aqueous DMF-potassium carbonate system and excluding the toxic thallium salt has been accomplished. Ionic liquids as the versatile and environmentally friendly class of solvents have been used in rapid phosphine-free terminal Heck arylations with controlled microwave heating. Recycling of the catalytic medium was achieved after a simple product purification.

The analysis of pesticide residues in fruit, vegetables, rape seed and water has been improved using developments in sample handling and analytical techniques. The method development is associated with analytical difficulties, since pesticides currently used in agriculture represent a variety of chemical classes having very different physico chemical properties. The method development also encounters difficulties when many various commodity classes with different characteristics are studied. The main task in pesticide residue analysis has been to provide multi residue methods, and traditionally GC has been the main analytical technique. In order to regulate the use of hazardous pesticides, the EU commission introduces strict maximum residue levels (MRL). The need for improved sample handling and detection techniques are, however, high due to handling of lower detection limits, complex matrices and the need of more efficient sample throughput. Of the new techniques introduced as alternative techniques to the traditional extraction techniques, pressurised fluid extraction (PFE) has shown to be a promising technique in analysis of pesticide residues in fatty foodstuffs. In water analysis, large sample volumes are needed due to low MRLs. The solid phase extraction (SPE) technique allows a concentration of large sample volumes and simplifies the tedious laboratory work with traditional separation funnels. A new approach was to use non-polar solvents for the sample extraction from the earlier used polymeric column. Both these techniques provide low solvent consumption, short extraction times and ability to automate the manual steps. An LC-MS/MS multi residue method was finally developed for pesticide residues in fruit and vegetables. The technique is robust and sensitive and allows a simultaneous determination of 57 pesticides and metabolites in one single analysis and without any clean-up steps. The sensitivity was improved to achieve the maximum residue limits needed by EU. Several multi step methods, which involve more costly analysis, has been replaced by this technique.

This thesis describes free-radical reactions for the construction of tetrahydrofuran and pyrrolidine derivatives. The studies are concerned with (i) diastereoselectivity in radical cyclisation, (ii) construction of tetrahydrofuran-3-ones and pyrrolidin-3-ones via radical carbonylation/cyclisation and (iii) synthesis of tetrahydrofuran derivatives via group-transfer cyclisation of organochalcogen compounds. (i) Diastereoselectivity in the synthesis of tetrahydrofuran derivatives via radical cyclisation was controlled by addition of Lewis acids. In the synthesis of 2,4-disubstitued tetrahydrofurans, the trans-isomer was formed as the major product in the unperturbed reaction. Upon addition of trialkylalumiums the diastereoselectivity was reversed. In a similar fashion, exo/endo-diastereoselectivity in the synthesis of bicyclic 2,3,4-trisubstituted tetrahydrofurans could also be controlled. (ii) Procedures for construction of tetrahydrofuran-3-ones and pyrrolidin-3-ones were presented. Epoxides were ring-opened with benzeneselenolate or benzenetellurolate and the resulting β-hydroxyalkyl phenyl chalcogenides were vinylated using ethyl propiolate/NMM or E-1,2-bis(phenylsulfonyl)ethylene/NaH. The corresponding nitrogen analogues were accessed by N-vinylation of aziridines followed by benzeneselenolate ring-opening. The two types of organochalcogen radical precursors were then treated with TTMSS/AIBN under an atmosphere of carbon monoxide (80 atm) to afford tetrahydrofuran-3-ones and pyrrolidin-3-ones, respectively, in high yields. (iii) Microwaves were found to induce group-transfer cyclisation of β-allyloxyalkyl aryl chalcogenides. Short time heating (3-10 min) at 250 oC in ethylene glycol was required to obtain tetrahydrofuran derivatives in 60-91% yield.