The Nguni sheep of Zululand, South Africa, are called the Zulu sheep. They are a source of food and cash for the rural farmers of KwaZulu-Natal. There is insufficient information available about the characteristics of this breed and accordingly the breed is classified as “insecure”. Documentation of characteristics of a breed is important for its utilisation, improvement or conservation. This study was undertaken to document (i) the utilization of the Zulu sheep, (ii) some morphological characteristics, (iii) establishing a cost effective body measurement recording means and (iv) the intra- and inter-population genetic variation of the breed using random amplified polymorphic DNA markers. A survey was conducted to investigate the socio-economic and cultural values of the farmers attached to livestock including the Zulu sheep. A total of 76 rural farmers were interviewed in the areas of the Mhlathuze district in northern KwaZulu-Natal. Constraints and the indigenous knowledge of the farmers on livestock production were also recorded. The results confirmed that the Zulu sheep in the rural areas are indeed used as a source of protein and cash when necessary. Farmers reported that the Zulu sheep are tolerant to ticks and able to withstand the hot and humid conditions of northern KwaZulu-Natal. Goats and cattle as well as the Zulu sheep are also used for payment of dues in the tribal courts. Even so, Zulu sheep are not used for any cultural purposes. The system of management is fairly extensive. Some farmers apply indigenous knowledge as part of management practices. For instance, they use indigenous plants as nutrient supplements and for increasing the reproduction rate of these animals. Lack of modern animal husbandry skills was declared by the farmers as one of the main challenges. A perception among the farmers was that the Government could assist in addressing this challenge. Three populations of Zulu sheep reared extensively in three localities were used for the morphometric and genetic studies. The areas were the community of KwaMthethwa (Enqutshini), University of Zululand (UNIZULU) and Makhathini Research Station. Makhathini and KwaMthethwa are 260 and 40 km, respectively, away from UNIZULU. The morphometric study was undertaken to determine the extent of phenotypic diversity between Zulu sheep populations using six morphological characteristics. Effects of some factors (location, age, sex and season) on some of these traits were estimated. Results showed that the size of the body measurements, wither height (WH), heart girth (HG), live weight (LW) and scrotal circumference (SC) were significantly different between the populations. Variation in these body measurements was influenced significantly by the location, season, the sex and the age of sheep. Mature ewes weighed up to 32 kg whereas the rams weighed up to 38 kg. The differences in LW, HG and WH between the seasons were small. The SC increased with the age of the ram up to 28 cm for mature rams. Other traits observed were the colour and the ear length of Zulu sheep. Ear size ranged from ear buds to the most common large ears (9 to 14 cm). The dominating colours observed were brown and a combination of brown and white. Live weight prediction equations were estimated employing HG, WH and SC data. The LW prediction equations showed that the regression of HG and WH produce the best estimate equations of LW; however the HG alone also showed reliable LW estimates. Scrotal circumference was more precise for estimating the LW of younger rams below 22 months of age (R2 = 0.64 – 0.78). Fifty-two Zulu sheep from the three locations were used to assess the genetic variation within the Zulu sheep breed. A total of 2744 RAPD bands were generated ranging from 0.2 to 2 kb; ~46% of these bands were polymorphic. The genetic diversity was the lowest (5.17%) within the UNIZULU population, 8.62% within the KwaMthethwa population and highest (11.04%) within the Makhathini population. The genetic diversity between all populations was estimated at 21.91 %. Phenotypic diversity was relatively similar for the UNIZULU and Makhathini populations (41.25% and 45.63%, respectively). The phenotypic diversity between the three populations was 48.26%. Genetic and phenotypic diversity was lower for Makhathini and UNIZULU populations than for the KwaMthethwa population. It was concluded that the Zulu sheep is a smaller sized breed compared to the other South African indigenous sheep breeds like the Dorper which has been reported to have some similar characteristics to the Nguni sheep. The results confirmed that the Zulu breed has the capacity to survive without dipping and supplements during the dry season. This adaptation is of value to the communities of KwaZulu-Natal. Such characteristics warrant conserving the breed to prevent genetic erosion. The phenotypic and genetic diversity between the three populations of Zulu sheep may indicate that there is an opportunity of genetic exploitation by selecting animals based on phenotypic as well as genetic characteristics. In order to promote the conservation and sustainable use of the Zulu sheep, it was recommended that an open nucleus breeding scheme from lower-tier flocks (of the farmers) for pure breeding to nucleus flocks (in Government ranches) could be appropriate. The scheme would also address the challenges of animal husbandry as well as contribute to the improvement of the livelihood of the farmers. Farmers could use a tape measure to estimate the LW of sheep when they cannot afford scales. The morphological characteristics and the genetic diversity data generated from this study could be combined into a single data base for this sheep breed. More extensive studies, using the same or some additional phenotypic characters such as reproductive performance, need to be done. Genetic characteristics of Zulu sheep using microsatellites and mitochondrial DNA should be done to complement the present study. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2010.

Despite the importance of taro (Colocasia esculenta L. Schott) as a food security crop, scientific research on it is scanty in South Africa. Production site, planting date and fertiliser regime affect crop performance and quality, particularly that of cultivars, because they tend to be adapted to specific localities. Storage temperature and packaging method on the other hand affect the shelf-life. To investigate performance and quality of three taro cultivars in response to planting date and fertilisation, a study was carried out at two sites in KwaZulu-Natal, South Africa (Ukulinga and Umbumbulu), during the 2007/2008 growing seasons. The effect of two storage temperatures (12oC and ambient temperature) and three packaging methods (polyethylene bags, mesh bags and open boxes) on cormel quality following storage was also investigated for three cultivars. Delayed planting negatively affected the number of cormels plant-1 and fresh cormel mass plant-1. Fertilisation and cultivar affected the number of cormels plant-1 and fresh cormel mass plant-1 only when planting was done in October and November at both sites. Fertilisation increased the number of cormels plant-1 for all cultivars except Dumbe-dumbe. Dumbe-dumbe had the lowest number of cormels plant-1 but the highest number of marketable cormels plant-1. Dumbe-dumbe showed the lowest fresh cormel mass plant-1 in October and the highest in November at Ukulinga. Fertisation increased fresh cormel mass plant-1 in October at Umbumbulu. Dry matter content was negatively affected by fertilisation at Ukulinga. The response of dry matter content, specific gravity, protein, minerals, reducing sugars and starch content was variable depending on cultivar. Delayed planting negatively affected starch content for Dumbe-dumbe and Pitshi at Ukulinga. Fertilisation decreased starch content of Pitshi, while delayed planting increased sugar content for Dumbe-dumbe and decreased it for Mgingqeni and Pitshi at Umbumbulu. Dumbe-dumbe had higher starch content and higher reducing sugars. Considering all growth and quality parameters, it is recommended that Dumbe-dumbe is the best taro cultivar for crisping and the best time to plant it is October with 160 kg N ha-1 of organic fertiliser and November with 320 kg N ha-1 at Ukulinga whereas at Umbumbulu the best time to plant Dumbe-dumbe is October with 320 kg N ha-1 of the fertiliser. Starch granules degradation, alpha-amylase activity and sprouting increased with storage time and storage temperature. Cormels of Mgingqeni stored in polyethylene bags showed highest alpha-amylase activity and sprouting. Reducing sugar content increased and starch content decreased with time in storage and decline in storage temperature. It is recommended that taro cormels be stored in mesh bags at 12oC. The chapters of this thesis represent different studies presented as different papers. Chapter 1 is a general introduction to explain the study background and hypothesis. Chapter 2 is a general review of literature. Chapter 3 is on growth, development and yield of taro in response to planting date and fertilisation. Chapter 4 is on the influence of planting date and organic fertiliser on crisping quality of taro cormels. Chapter 5 is on changes in the surface morphology of starch granules and alpha-amylase activity of taro during storage. Chapter 6 is on the effects of pre- and post-harvest practices on starch and reducing sugars of taro. The last chapter is a general discussion and conclusions. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2009.

The number of unemployed young university graduates in South Africa is annually on the rise. This is due to a combination of factors which include a lack of the right skills, work experience, type of qualification, low number of available jobs and other macro-economic factors. Different stakeholders have proposed entrepreneurship as a possible solution to graduate unemployment. This study explores the feasibility of entrepreneurship as a way out of unemployment for jobless graduates. It does this by investigating the perceptions of young graduates of the University of KwaZulu-Natal who are engaged in entrepreneurship in Pietermaritzburg. The qualitative method of interviews is used for data collection. Two major areas of investigation in this study are that of the challenges that graduates encounter in their various business ventures as well as their perceptions about the effectiveness of entrepreneurship education at university. Generally the findings of this study seem to suggest that entrepreneurship, if developed properly, could be one of the solutions to the challenge of graduate unemployment. However a number of factors determine successful entrepreneurship. These include personality traits, intelligence, access to finance, good business management skills, family background as well as the general economic environment. The findings could also generally suggest that, in its current form, entrepreneurship education is not effective enough in producing graduates who are successful in business. / Thesis (M.Com.Dev.Studies)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2012.

Alleycropping is an agroforestry technology of planting crops between rows of trees, preferable legumes to promote an interaction among them with positive benefits in terms of improving soil fertility and hence good crop yields. The technology has been tested with a variety of trees/shrubs species in association with crops (alleycropping) or with grasses (alleygrazing), sometimes with encouraging results and sometimes not, in a wide range of environmental conditions around the world. Research in alleycropping started in late 1970s and sinc~ then many publications have been released. However, little or nothing has been reported about this technology using black wattle and the fever tree, two nitrogen-fixing trees common in South Africa and reported as fast-growing species which produce a considerable amount of biomass within a short period of time. Due to that fact, a two-year trial was established in 2003 at the Ukulinga research farm, Pietermaritzburg, South Africa to evaluate the potential of the two tree species under alleycropping with maize and cowpeas as joint intercrops, under alleycropping with pumpkin, and under alleygrazing with Eragrostis curvula and with Panicum maximum. The trial assessed the crop yields and the biomass production from all the components, and their fodder digestibility using Neutral Detergent Fibre (NDF) and Acid Detergent Fibre (ADF) determinations. Additionally the changes in tree grovlth vaa."'i.ables (difu~eter, total height, total \lollhl1e and biomass) were mortitored to produce regression equations to predict those variables, one from another, using regression analysis. The diameter was taken at ground level (dgl) and at the height of 1.3 m, normally called diameter at breast height (dbh). The results showed that tree growth and biomass production were better in black wattle alleycropping than in association with the fever tree. The average dgl of black wattle after 12 months was 48mm and the average dbh was 36mlll. Over the same period the total tree height was about 406cm. A tree pruning was done to one-year old black wattle in the whole trial and the prunings produced about 5.6t/ha of fresh foliage biomass in the association with maize and cowpea and 4.5t/ha in the association with pumpkin. In alleygrazing the growth variables were similar to those obtained in alleycropping but the biomass production was considerably different. The prunings produced about 7.66t/ha of fresh foliage biomass. The dry matter biomass from the prunings was 1.96t/ha, 1.58t/ha and 2.68t/ha in the association with maize and cowpeas, pumpkin and E. curvula respectively. The dry matter was obtained from 4days- oven-dried samples and it was 35% of the fresh foliage biomass and 60% of the fresh woody biomass. The fever tree did not grow significantly during the study period and due to that fact, the species was discarded from the study. Similarly, because after several endeavours using different seed lots, P. maximum had germinated very unevenly, and this grass was excluded from the experimentation. Values ofNDF and ADF less than 35% are considered good, between 35% and 60% fair and poor if greater than 50%. Using is classification the NDF and ADF values from this study were good in pumpkin (30.5% and 29.9%) and cowpeas (36.5% and 46.9%) biomass, fair in E. curvula (41.9% and 39.9%) and maize stover (53.6% and 42.1%) and poor in black wattle (76.58% and 68.1%) foliage. If black wattle is to be used as fodder, it must be mixed with highly digestible fodder like P. maximum, Digitaria sp., and other legume plants, to increase animal intake and to avoid any risk of it becoming an animal hazard due to tannin effects. The regression equations produced linear relationships between dgl and age, and biomass and dbh. The other interactions were not linear. The best equations were obtained in the interaction between dgl and age (dgl= 4.8*Age -7.03; R2 =0.86; SE= 6.6), dgl and height (h= -0.03dg12 + 10.5dgl - 21.25; R2= 0.96, SE= 42.9, h= height), biomass and dbh (lny = 2.409*lndbh; R2=0.99, SE=O.O, Y= tree foliage biomass). During the study, monkeys, cattle, birds and bushbucks posed a threat to the success of the study due to damage they caused to the crops. It was possible to keep the damage below the critical levels, although at high cost. / Thesis (M.Env.Dev.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2006.

Poverty is caused by inadequate income. Effective assistance to small-scale enterprises may benefit the urban and rural poor. Small enterprises have the potential to create employment, reduce poverty and support sustainable livelihoods, as small enterprises satisfy local needs, provide employment opportunities in local areas, increase income, ensure food security and improve health. The Department of Land Affairs has recently introduced policies such the Land Reform Policy to correct the injustices of South Africa’s past. During 2005, the KwaZulu-Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs introduced the Agrarian Revolution Programme, in an effort to close the gap between the first and second economy. The Agrarian Revolution and the LRAD programmes encourage agribusinesses through the formation of co-operatives or trusts. The purpose of this study was to investigate the potential of an envisaged processing enterprise with a group of women from an LRAD project, within the Engadini Community Trust. An action research methodology was followed. A training manual was developed and training conducted with the Engadini women’s group through which they prepared a business plan, developed prototype products; conducted market research; estimated prices for the products and developed a marketing plan. The study results indicate that the group would have the technical skills to make a good quality product. The group is likely to face problems ensuring a sustainable supply of raw materials as the current supply of milk would hardly be sufficient to supply the target market sampled during the consumer survey. The success of the dairy processing enterprises depends heavily on the ability of the Engadini Trust to overcome internal social problems. Conflict between the Engadini dairy processing enterprise members and conflict within the larger Engadini Community Trust had a crippling effect on the dairy processing enterprise. The main recommendations for the group are that the group needs to secure a sustainable supply or fresh milk. A dairy processing facility that will meet food safety standards needs to be erected for the enterprise. The location of the dairy processing enterprise needs to be re-considered. To overcome internal conflict within the group, the women’s group needs to gain representation on the Engadini Community Trust’s Executive Committee, to ensure that the dairy processing enterprise interests are considered by the Trust. The main recommendations for small-scale enterprises are that they should ensure to have sustainable supply of good-quality raw materials and a reliable, sustainable market, even if the market is relatively small. Policy recommendations are that Government Departments such as the KwaZulu-Natal Departments of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs and Economic Development should consider adapting policies that will focus on funding individual enterprises, rather than group enterprises. A directorate or sub-directorate dedicated to the development of small and medium sized food processing enterprises should be created. The marketing section of the KwaZulu- Natal Department of Agriculture and Environmental Affairs should provide marketing information for small-scale food processing enterprises available to extension officers and small-scale enterprises.

Introduction Willingness to participate in clinical trials is a crucial element in recruitment of suitable participants for intervention trials. Measurement of willingness to participate assists in determining community preparedness for clinical trials, such as HIV vaccine trials. Therefore, researchers have developed a Clinical Research Involvement Scale (CRIS) to assess willingness to participate modelled on the Theory of Reasoned Action. The CRIS was tested in the USA and was noted that it would benefit from additional testing in other populations. Aim The purpose of this study is to determine whether racial differences exist in willingness to participate and explore potential factors associated with willingness to participate in HIV prevention research. Methods A cross sectional analytic study was conducted. The CRIS was administered to university students aged 18-45 at the University of KwaZulu-Natal in South Africa. The CRIS was administered online with a demographic questionnaire to facilitate evaluation of possible associations between willingness to participate and age, gender, relationship status, parity, religion, education status, student status, employment status and access to private health care. Participation was once-off at the time of completing the scale. Results The study enrolled 636 participants, two thirds being female. An effective sample size of 509 was considered for analysis after data was cleaned for accuracy and completeness. The results indicated that all students across all race groups were willing to participate in HIV prevention research. However, when considering factors that affected willingness to participate, statistically significant differences were noted. Based on the differences amongst these factors, Black students expressed greater intention to participate compared to White and Indian students. The CRIS was deemed a reliable instrument in this population; however in its current structure it did not show strong validity. Validity improved if the factors of motivation to comply and outcome evaluations were removed in this population. Discussion The study findings are specific to students of the University of KwaZulu-Natal and cannot be generalized to other populations. The racial differences in factors that affect willingness to participate indicate differences in risk perception and seeking access to better quality healthcare. Recommendations The CRIS should be used in other student populations to assess its validity. (350 words) / Thesis (M.Med.Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2013.

The St Lucia estuarine system, Africa’s largest estuarine lake, is characterised by cyclic changes from hypersaline to oligo/mesohaline conditions in response to alternations between drought and wetter than average years. In addition, St Lucia also experiences stochastic disturbances, such as flooding events that rapidly decrease salinity levels. Due to their sessile and slow moving nature, bivalves are particularly vulnerable to rapid or prolonged changes in the physico-chemical environment. The recent freshwater deprivation crisis that prevailed for the last decade resulted in a significant loss in bivalve species richness within the system. An annotated and illustrated bivalve census revealed the occurrence of twenty-four species within St Lucia between the years 1925 and 2011. However, only six species were recorded during the most recent survey in March 2011. The infaunal razor clam, Solen cylindraceus, and the epifaunal brackwater mussel, Brachidontes virgiliae, are currently the dominant bivalve species within St Lucia. This study, therefore, aimed to record the species richness of bivalves found in Lake St Lucia and to investigate key biological aspects of the two dominant bivalve taxa within the system, under different salinity regimes. Experiments revealed that S. cylindraceus can tolerate salinities between 15 and 65, while B. virgiliae prefers salinity levels ranging from freshwater to 20. The varying tolerance limits, therefore, dictate the distribution of these species during different climatic conditions within the estuarine lake. During wet periods, S. cylindraceus is restricted to the northern reaches, unable to tolerate the oligohaline conditions present in the rest of the system. Conversely, B. virgiliae, often restricted to the Narrows, becomes ubiquitous throughout the system under such conditions. Solen cylindraceus can reach a maximum length of 95 mm. However, in the St Lucia estuarine system, specimens seldom exceed a length of 55 mm, probably because prevailing/re-occurring harsh conditions prevent them from reaching maximum size. In situ measurements of this species also revealed less growth during the first year of life than for the same species in different systems. While B. virgiliae is substantially smaller than S. cylindraceus, the high densities that this species is able to attain makes it an important grazer with the potential to have significant feeding impacts on the local phytoplankton biomass. Results showed that in localised areas, B. virgiliae populations may consume up to eight times the available phytoplankton biomass. These key bivalve species are strongly influenced by the fluctuation in climatic conditions from wet to dry phases. Thus, understanding the effects that climatic shifts have on key estuarine species is essential, as flood and drought events are predicted to increase in frequency, intensity and duration as a result of global climate change. / Thesis (Ph.D.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2014.

South Africa is a net food exporter, however, scores of households in the rural and peri-urban and urban areas are food insecure. Some households in the peri-urban areas of uMngeni and Msunduzi Municipalities of KwaZulu-Natal have sought to alleviate their households from food insecurity through community gardens, which are widely promoted and used as a means to increase food supply. This study was centred on a livelihood based analysis of the contribution of community gardens to food security in Msunduzi and uMngeni Municipalities, KwaZulu-Natal. A survey was conducted among 46 participants and data was collected through the use of Livelihood- based Participatory Analysis (LiPA) tools. LiPA emerged as a tool for analysis with the development of sustainable livelihoods approach. Livelihood analysis made use of participatory methods to evaluate the following Framework of African Food Security indicators: improvement of risk management and resilience; increase in supply of affordable food; increase in economic opportunities for the vulnerable; and improvement in dietary diversity. Gardening helped to supply the participants with fresh produce, however, gardening did little to improve the participants risk management and economic opportunities. Drought, theft and insects were identified as the major factors limiting the success of community gardens. Despite the challenges, the community gardeners were indeed benefiting from community gardening therefore, further research could be carried out to compare food security among households involved in community gardening and those not involved. / Thesis (M.Sc.Agric.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Pietermaritzburg, 2012.

Introduction: The prevalence of obesity in South Africa and throughout the world is increasing. Obesity is related to hypertension, atherosclerosis, diabetes, dyslipidemia and other sub-clinical conditions. Aim: To establish the prevalence of obesity and related risk factors among nurses in a public health hospital in KwaZulu-Natal. Methods: The design entailed a cross-sectional survey among 250 randomly selected nurses (22-64 years) working in King Edward Hospital (KZN). Obesity was measured using anthropometric and derived parameters of stature, body mass, body mass index (BMI) and waist to hip ratios (WHR). Related risks were determined using a screening questionnaire. Results: The mean body mass and BMI observed was 84.42 ± 17.49 kg and 32.60± 6.34 kg/m2, respectively with 76.10% of the sample being overweight or obese (64.80%; BMI~30). The mean waist circumference (93.01±12.73 cm) fell into the high risk category. A large proportion (30.4%) reported experiencing lower back pain. A significant crude odds ratio (OR) was found between obesity and the risk for lower back pain with an OR of 2.53 (CI 1.12 - 5.71). An increased but insignificant risk was observed in obese individuals for hypertension (OR 1.85: CI 0.63 - 5.40). Stressed individuals (PSS> 13) had an increased but insignificant risk for obesity (OR 1.78: CI 0.70 - 4.50) but a significantly increased risk for lower back pain (OR 8.59: CI 2.00-36.85; p:S0.05). Only 79 of the 250 nurses (31.6%) from our sample reported doing vigorous exercises on a regular basis and the nature of their exercise programs did not protect against the risk of obesity (OR 2.18: CI 1.03-4.60; p:S0.05). Discussion and Conclusion: A high prevalence of obesity and related risk factors among this population of nurses in a public hospital, and potentially in the nursing occupation at large, should be addressed within the context of employee wellbeing. The need for education on appropriate diet and exercise programming in order to prevent hypokinesis and associated diseases of lifestyle is evident. Key words: Nurses, Body Mass Index, Obesity, Low Back Pain, Hypertension, Stress, Hypokinesis / Thesis (M.Sport Sc.)-University of KwaZulu-Natal, Durban, 2010.

M. Tech. Architectural Technology / The aim of this study was to investigate the climate influence of a conservatory added to an existing building. The interior temperature and relative humidity levels were measured, analysed and compared with that of the exterior, to determine in which seasonal cycle the conservatory was more effective as an interior climate enhancement system. The building on which the case study was based is a farmhouse, retrofitted with a conservatory, situated in KwaZulu-Natal, near Bergville in the Drakensberg region. The owner added a conservatory to the existing building, in an attempt to achieve a more temperate indoor climate by harnessing natural energies. The South African climate is typified by varying high diurnal temperatures, with some climatic zones experiencing high summer and/or low winter temperatures. The conservatory was therefore used as a design measure to create a passive solar environment within an enclosed intermediate area.