Intellectually normal young children learn to request absent but needed objects which they are able to name. The primary focus of my study of child language in context was to assess the motivational effect of operation or stimulus preference on Lhe rate of toy request acquisition and the formation of stimulus classes (stimulus equivalences) . Of 13 21- to 37- month-old day-care children screened for generalized request responses (novel requests) , 1 girl and 4 boys participated in the training program because they were unable to request. Two of 4 children who completed training showed some support for the effect of preference for two two-stimulus operations on request response acquisition. All 4 children emitted novel requests to generalization probes following request acquisition criterion for one most and one least preferred stimulus. Preference had no observable effect on generalization of requesting to untrained stimuli. Additionally, I assessed and compared the cognitive-linguistic and adaptive-social maturity of those 5 children who were unable and those 8 who were able to request during preliminary request screening. The trained children tended to have a greater difference between their measured receptive and expressive language skills, and also they tended to have slightly lower scores on the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales: Communication, Daily Living Skills, Socialization, and Motor Skills Domains. I also tested the efficacy of a natural language paradigm using a distributed skills trial sequence with interspersed trials of known-items as an extension of Tidwell's (1986) matching-to-sample, errorless learning procedure. Four within-subject replications of successful operation, name, and request acquisition are reported across 8 operations in support of his response chain methodology. I suggest that a battery of most of the developmental measures and request screening and training procedures tested in my study might be used by behavioral interventionists to assess and remediate delayed and/or inappropriate requesting among young normally developing children in a day-care setting.

(in English): This diploma thesis focuses on how spelling is taught as a part of Czech language lessons at primary schools. The thesis aims to describe the level of spelling knowledge in students attending first and lower secondary schools, and it also attempts to compare their performance. Attention is first paid to the essential theoretical framework of the Czech language, its spelling, and teaching in Czech. The possibilities of evaluating spelling knowledge in Czech language lessons are highlighted. For the practical part, a survey was performed at a primary school in Kolín, and a total of 84 pupils attending grades four to eight were selected. The participants were presented with several spelling exercises in three different formats: dictation, gap fills, and error correction. The collected data were analysed and compared. The findings suggest that the pupils' spelling knowledge reaches only an average level, and it is, therefore, necessary to pay more attention to spelling practice. With specific phenomena, better results were recorded in the 7th and 8th grades than with younger pupils.

Researchers have intermittently treated the topic of the language in which reading comprehension test questions should be presented in, or language of assessment (LoA). The overall consensus has been that questions in L1 lead to better scores and that questions in L1 should be used for reading comprehension particularly at the beginning levels. However, minimal research has been conducted at the advanced level, and no research has been found where proficiency items, empirically validated, were utilized in testing instruments. Furthermore, explanatory data from qualitative analysis has been sparse. The present research endeavored to satisfy these areas of needed research. It was found that a group of advanced learners of Russian performed better when MC questions were presented in English. Student attitudes, as revealed by survey items, depicted questions in L2 as more difficult. It was additionally found that vocabulary was one of the major factors in difficulty. Matters pertaining to validity and face validity surfaced and were designated, along with gathering other qualitative data, as the recommended direction of future research.

No description available.

No description available.

In the past, the focus in language testing, teaching and research has largely been on careful reading while expeditious (quick, efficient and selective) reading has been largely ignored. However, some research suggests that careful reading ability alone is inadequate for students to meet the demands of undergraduate academic reading. In the main English for Academic Purposes (EAP), test instruments have been previously based on careful reading models which assume reading to be unicomponential. If this is not the case, the issue for language testing is whether the construct of academic reading can be validly measured by a focus on careful reading alone. The aims of this study were to investigate the types of academic reading required of firstyear undergraduates based on Urquhart and Weir's (1998) four-cell matrix of reading types which also forms an important part of Khalifa and Weir's (2009) reading model. Based on this, a valid academic reading test battery for undergraduate students was developed and used to examine the divisibility of the academic reading construct. The literature review on reading models suggested that current models were nearly all premised on careful reading and expeditious reading had in the main been ignored. The findings of a pilot and main questionnaire survey with undergraduates suggested that both careful and expeditious reading were important in accomplishing academic reading tasks at the undergraduate level. Accordingly, the empirical data generated by these surveys validated Urquhart and Weir's (2009) reading matrix and aspects of the reading model by Khalifa and Weir (2009). Based on this matrix and aspects of the model, a valid reading test was developed and administered to first-year undergraduate students. The performance of undergraduates across the different parts of the reading test confirmed that academic reading was a divisible construct. The findings of this study add to the literature on EAL academic reading by lending empirical support to a componential approach to the teaching and testing of reading. The componential model and the test design methodology employed should help test designers develop valid academic reading tests embracing both careful and expeditious reading types. The results from such tests might usefully inform pedagogical practice leading to more efficient reading practice at undergraduate level.

The present study aimed to establish a test development and validation framework of reading-into-writing tests to improve the accountability of using the integrated task type to assess test takers' ability in Academic English. This study applied Weir's (2005) socio-cognitive framework to collect three components of test validity: context validity, cognitive validity and criterion-related validity of two common types of reading-into-writing test tasks (essay task with multiple verbal inputs and essay task with multiple verbal and non-verbal inputs). Through literature review and a series of pilot, a set of contextual and cognitive parameters that are useful to explicitly describe the features of the target academic writing tasks and the cognitive processes required to complete these tasks successfully was defined at the pilot phase of this study. A mixed-method approach was used in the main study to establish the context, cognitive and criterion-related validity of the reading-into-writing test tasks. First of all, for context validity, expert judgement and automated textual analysis were applied to examine the degree of correspondence of the contextual features (overall task setting and input text features) of the reading-into-writing test tasks to those of the target academic writing tasks. For cognitive validity, a cognitive process questionnaire was developed to assist participants to report the processes they employed on the two reading-into-writing test tasks and two real-life academic tasks. A total of 443 questionnaires from 219 participants were collected. The analysis of the cognitive validity included three stands: 1) the cognitive processes involved in real-life academic writing, 2) the extent to which these processes are elicited by the reading-into-writing test tasks, and 3) the underlying structure of the processes elicited by the reading-into-writing test tasks. A range of descriptive, inferential and factor analyses were performed on the questionnaire data. The participants' scores on these real-life academic and reading-into-writing test tasks were collected for correlational analyses to investigate the criterion-related validity of the test tasks. The findings of the study support the context, cognitive and criterion-related validity of the integrated reading-into-writing task type. In terms of context validity, the two reading-into-writing tasks largely resembled the overall task setting, the input text features and the linguistic complexity of the input texts of the real-life tasks in a number of important ways. Regarding cognitive validity, the results revealed 11 cognitive processes involved in 5 phases of real-life academic writing as well as the extent to which these processes were elicited by the test tasks. Both reading-into-writing test tasks were able to elicit from high-achieving and low-achieving participants most of these cognitive processes to a similar extent as the participants employed the processes on the real-life tasks. The medium-achieving participants tended to employ these processes more on the real-life tasks than on the test tasks. The results of explanatory factor analysis showed that both test tasks were largely able to elicit from the participants the same underlying cognitive processes as the real-life tasks did. Lastly, for criterion-related validity, the correlations between the two reading-into-writing test scores and academic performance reported in this study are apparently better than most previously reported figures in the literature. To the best of the researcher's knowledge, this study is the first study to validate two types of reading-into-writing test tasks in terms of three validity components. The results of the study proved with empirical evidence that reading-into-writing tests can successfully operationalise the appropriate contextual features of academic writing tasks and the cognitive processes required in real-life academic writing under test conditions, and the reading-into-writing test scores demonstrated a promising correlation to the target academic performance. The results have important implications for university admissions officers and other stakeholders; in particular they demonstrate that the integrated reading-into-writing task type is a valid option when considering language teaching and testing for academic purposes. The study also puts forward a test framework with explicit contextual and cognitive parameters for language teachers, test developers and future researchers who intend to develop valid reading-into-writing test tasks for assessing academic writing ability and to conduct validity studies in such integrated task type.

[EN] ABSTRACT Most standardized tests of English as a second language (ESL) and / or Foreign Language (EFL) are high stake tests, and a growing number of these offers two versions: a traditional pen & paper, and a computerized one. Some examining bodies also implement adaptive tests. The technological advance of these standardized tests, usually commercial, it is clear and beneficial at first sight. However, some important aspects of the curriculum such as pragmatic competence are not usually measured by such tests. The only computerized tests that include items that measure this competence in their written tests are the Next generation TOEFL iBT test, and the Oxford Online Placement Test (OOPT). This thesis aims to check if the OOPT, which is used to certify levels of EFL, is a valid indicator of the skills of interest such as pragmalinguistic competence and also to show whether this ability is measured appropriately for the intended use. Moreover, it delves into the reasons why a group of 44 students taking a first year course at the Facultat de Magisteri (University of Valencia) miss questions in the OOPT that specifically assess their pragmalinguistic competence. Unlike previous studies, the interest of this thesis resides in the fact it analyzes not only what kind of test method facets influence these students production of errors, but also the personal characteristics involved in their error production. All of that, from a cognitive and meta-linguistic perspective, according to the students own perception. For this purpose, a retrospective questionnaire was designed and administered to the group. Several quantitative analyses (correlation, multiple regression and correspondence) were implemented to analyze the concurrent validity of the test, the weight of pragmatic ability in the assessment, and the reasons for errors, in that order. Moreover a descriptive analysis of pragmatic items was conducted to check the content validity of the pragmatics part of the OOPT. The results clearly indicate which skills require greater attention from both, teachers and designers of this type of tests. The analysis indicates that the pragmatic block, along with the listening one, holds the highest number of errors made by examinees. Moreover, the main reason highlighted by them as source of errors is the lack of certain lexical units contained in the pragmatics items. Finally, some proposals consistent with the results are presented in order to help improve the quality of adaptive language testing. Also some ideas are suggested to overcome current limitations in the teaching of pragmalinguistic competence in EFL formal academic contexts. / [ES] RESUMEN La mayoría de pruebas estandarizadas de inglés como segunda lengua (ISL) y /o lengua extranjera (ILE) son pruebas de alto impacto, y un número cada vez mayor de éstas ofrece dos versiones: una tradicional en papel, y otra informatizada. Algunos cuerpos examinadores implementan además pruebas adaptativas. El avance tecnológico de estas pruebas estandarizadas, por lo general comerciales, es evidente y beneficioso a priori. Sin embargo, algunos aspectos importantes del currículo como la competencia pragmática no suelen ser medidos por este tipo de pruebas. Las únicas pruebas informatizadas que incluyen ítems que miden ésta competencia en sus pruebas escritas son el Next generation TOEFL¿ iBT test, y el Oxford Online Placement Test (OOPT). En la presente tesis se pretende en primer lugar, comprobar si el OOP, utilizado para certificar niveles de ILE/ISL, es un indicador válido de las habilidades de interés tales como la competencia pragmalingüística, así como también evidenciar si esta habilidad es medida apropiadamente para el uso que se pretende. Por otra parte, se profundiza en las causas por las que un grupo de 44 estudiantes que cursan la asignatura de Lengua Inglesa para Maestros de primer curso en la Facultat de Magisteri (Universitat de València) yerran las preguntas del OOPT que evalúan específicamente su competencia pragmálingüística. A diferencia de estudios anteriores, el interés de la presente tesis estriba en que en ella se investiga desde una perspectiva cognitiva y metalingüística, no solo qué tipo de factores de método pueden influir en la producción de errores de los examinandos, sino también, qué factores individuales intervienen según su propia percepción. Para tal fin se diseñó y administró a los examinandos un cuestionario retrospectivo. Se implementaron varios análisis cuantitativos (correlacional, de regresión múltiple y de correspondencia) para analizar la validez concurrente de la prueba, el peso en la evaluación de la parte de pragmática y los motivos de error respectivamente. Por otra parte se realizó un análisis descriptivo de las preguntas de pragmática para comprobar la validez de contenido de la parte de pragmática del OOPT. Los resultados obtenidos señalan claramente cuáles son las habilidades que requieren mayor atención por parte tanto de los profesores como de los diseñadores de este tipo de pruebas. El análisis indica que el bloque de pragmática es, junto con el de comprensión oral, el que mayor número de errores cometidos por los examinandos ostenta. Por otra parte, el motivo fundamental destacado por los examinandos como causa de error es el desconocimiento de ciertas unidades léxicas contenidas en los ítems de pragmática. Finalmente en esta tesis se presentan propuestas en consonancia con los resultados obtenidos que pueden redundar en una mejora de la calidad de las pruebas de lengua adaptativas y en la superación de algunas limitaciones actuales en la enseñanza de la competencia pragmalingüística en ILE/ISL en contextos académicos formales. / [CAT] RESUM La majoria de proves estandarditzades d'anglès com a segona llengua (AL2) i / o llengua estrangera (ALE) són proves d'alt impacte, i un nombre cada vegada major d'aquestes ofereix dues versions: una tradicional en paper, i una altra informatitzada. Alguns cossos examinadors implementen més proves adaptatives. L'avanç tecnològic d'aquestes proves estandarditzades, en general comercials, és evident i beneficiós a priori. No obstant això, alguns aspectes importants del currículum com la competència pragmàtica no solen ser mesurats per aquest tipus de proves. Les úniques proves informatitzades que inclouen ítems que mesuren aquesta competència en les seves proves escrites són el Next generation TOEFL¿ iBT test, i l'Oxford Online Placement Test (OOPT). En la present tesi es pretén en primer lloc, comprovar si el OOP, utilitzat per certificar nivells de ALE / AL2, és un indicador vàlid de les habilitats d'interès com ara la competència pragmalingüística, així com també evidenciar si aquesta habilitat es mesura apropiadament per l'ús que es pretén. D'altra banda, s'aprofundeix en les causes per les quals un grup de 44 estudiants que cursen l'assignatura de Llengua Anglesa per a Mestres de primer curs a la Facultat de Magisteri (Universitat de València) erren les preguntes del OOPT que avaluen específicament la seva competència pragmalingüística. A diferència d'estudis anteriors, l' interès de la present tesi rau en el fet que en ella s'investiga des d'una perspectiva cognitiva i metalingüística, no només quin tipus de factors de mètode poden influir en la producció d'errors dels examinands, sinó també, quins factors individuals intervenen segons la seva pròpia percepció. Per a tal fi es va dissenyar i va administrar als examinands un qüestionari retrospectiu. Es van implementar diverses anàlisis quantitatius (correlacional, de regressió múltiple i de correspondència) per analitzar la validesa concurrent de la prova, el pes en l'avaluació de la part de pragmàtica i els motius d'error respectivament. D'altra banda es va realitzar una anàlisi descriptiva de les preguntes de pragmàtica per comprovar la validesa de contingut de la part de pragmàtica del OOPT. Els resultats obtinguts assenyalen clarament quines són les habilitats que requereixen més atenció per part tant dels professors com dels dissenyadors d'aquest tipus de proves. L'anàlisi indica que el bloc de pragmàtica és, juntament amb el de comprensió oral, el que major nombre d'errors comesos pels examinands ostenta. D'altra banda, el motiu fonamental destacat pels examinands com a causa d'error és el desconeixement de certes unitats lèxiques que contenen els ítems de pragmàtica. Finalment en aquesta tesi es presenten propostes d'acord amb els resultats obtinguts que poden redundar en una millora de la qualitat de les proves de llengua adaptatives i en la superació d'algunes limitacions actuals en l'ensenyament de la competència pragmalingüística en ALE / AL2 en contextos acadèmics formals. / Martín Marchante, B. (2015). La evaluación de la competencia pragmática en lengua extranjera a través de una prueba adaptativa [Tesis doctoral no publicada]. Universitat Politècnica de València. https://doi.org/10.4995/Thesis/10251/59437 / TESIS

The purpose of this study was to obtain data from the PPVT-R scores of low and middle SES black kindergartners in the Portland area to determine if there is a difference between their scores and the scores reported in the PPVT-R. The primary question to be answered was do the scores of black kindergartners in Portland vary significantly dependent upon SES? The secondary questions this study sought to answer were: what are the means, standard deviations, and ranges of scores for black kindergartners in Portland and what are the means, standard deviations, and ranges for each two-month age group of black kindergartners in Portland?

Normal phonological development is characterized by phonological processes in preschool children. These processes are sound error patterns, in relation to the adult target, that are expected within the speech of normally developing children. As children grow older, they "outgrow" these developmental errors. Within the black English dialect, speakers may use a combination of these processes and not be considered phonologically impaired within their linguistic community. The purpose of this study was to assess and compare phonological process usage in the speech of lower socioeconomic black and white preschoolers. The APP-R in conjunction with the CAPP was administered to two groups of 15 children to determine if significant differences exist in the usage of phonological processes between the two groups. Group 1 was comprised of 15 black preschoolers from an inner-city preschool program. Group 2 was comprised of 15 white preschoolers from a Headstart program. All children were identified by their respective speech-language pathologist as having normally developing speech for their linguistic community. Data analysis revealed black preschoolers used phonological processes with a higher frequency than white preschoolers. The phonological process usage mean for the black preschoolers was 4.26% (SD = 1.94) and the mean for the white preschoolers was 1.71% (SD = 2.86). Three of the ten basic processes were determined to be significantly different between the two groups, including: consonant sequence omission, strident deviation, and velar deviation. The results were further examined to determine if either group of preschoolers was identified as needing phonological remediation based on their performance on the APP-R. None of the subjects in either group was identified as needing phonological remediation. In conclusion, results indicated black English speaking preschoolers did use significantly more phonological processes in their speech, however, the APP-R did not identify these children as needing phonological remediation. These results demonstrate the APP-R to be an appropriate assessment tool when evaluating the speech of this Portland black English speaking sample.