Lapis Lazuli é um mineral de silicato, que foi objeto do presente estudo. Trata-se de uma solução sólida complexa de outros quatro minerais de silicato, a saber: sodalita, noselita, huainita, e lazurita. Essa composição da solução sólida não permite estimar a porcentagem de cada mineral componente, no analise de fluorescência de raios X, onde se obteve que os principiais óxidos componentes do lapis lazuli são, (em % mol) SiO_2 (33,2), CaO (16,3), MgO (12,1) e Al_2 O_3 (10,1) e, em menor concentração , Na_2 O (6,10), SiO_3 (5,90), Fe_2 O_3 (2,05), K_2 O (1,90) e outros óxidos em concentrações menores. Para a caracterização da amostra de lapis lazuli, foram utilizados termoluminescência (TL), ressonância paramagnética eletrônica (EPR) e técnicas de espectroscopia de reflectância. Em TL, é claro, as curvas de emissão da amostra natural, irradiada ou com tratamento térmico têm sido utilizadas. Uma curva de emissão da amostra natural apresentou picos em 296°C e a 372°C , mas as amostras irradiadas mostraram picos em 140°C, 250°C e 350°C. Logo mostrou - se que o pico em 140°C, é na verdade, uma sobreposição dos picos em 116°C e 160°C. O segundo pico cresce linearmente com a dose até cerca de 7000-8000 Gy. O lápis-lazúli apresenta um decaimento anômalo. O primeiro pico decaiu a partir de 3400 (u.a) para 1700 (u.a), em 45 horas, o segundo pico decaiu a partir de 8500(u.a) para 3000 (u.a), nas mesmas 45 horas. Para a Avaliação da parâmetros E e s, o método de forma de pico e Tm- Tstop. O terceiro método com base em diversas taxas de aquecimento para a leitura TL, com a utilização direta do método resultou em valores de E e s irrealistas. Não se encontrou a explicação por que, mas ao fazer deconvolução das curvas de emissão para cada taxa de aquecimento encontramos resultados mais realistas. A deconvolução mostrou quatro picos em 110°C, 146°C, 191°C 245°C, com valores E, respectivamente iguais a 1,229 eV ; 1,23eV; 1,24eV e 1,25eV . O espectro de EPR da amostra experimental apresentou seis sinais de Mn^(2+) e um sinal grande de Fe^(3+) com g= 2,0. A irradiação da ordem de dezenas de kGy produzido um sinal em torno de g=2,003 devido ao centro em F induzido pela radiação. O espectro de refletância mostra um vale em torno de 600 a 800 nm, que corresponde a uma banda de absorção do mesmo comprimento de onda e é responsável pela coloração azul. / Lapis Lazuli is a natural silicate mineral investigated in the present work. It is a complex solid solution of four other silicate minerals, sodalite, Nosean, Hanyne and Lazurite. This compositon of solid solution does not allow the estimate of the percentage of each mineral component from the result of X ray fluorescence analysis, which has revealed as main oxide components of lapis lazuli as (in mol % ) SiO_2 (33,2), CaO (16,3), MgO (12,1) and Al_2 O_3 (10,1) and in smaller concentrations Na_2 O (6,10), SiO_3 (5,90), Fe_2 O_3 (2,05), K_2 O (1,90) plus others in even smaller concentration. For the characterization of the lapis lazuli sample, we used thermoluminescence (TL), electronic paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and reflectance spectroscopy techniques. In TL, of course, glow curves of natural or irradiated or annealed samples have been used.\\\\ A typical glow curve presented peaks at 296.5°C and at 372°C, but irradiated sample has shown peaks at 140°C, 250°C and 350°C. Later it was shown that 140 °C peak is actually a superposition of 116°C and 160°C peaks. The second peak is the prominent one and its height grows linearly with the dose up to about 7000 to 8000 Gy. Lapis lazuli presents an anomalous fading. The first peak decays from 3400 (a.u.) to 1700 (a.u.) in 45 hours, the second peak decays from 8500 (a.u.) to 3000 (a.u.) in the same 45 hours. For the evalution of parameters E and s, peak shape method and Tm-Tstop methods have been used. The third method based on various heating rates for TL reading, with the direct use of method yielded unrealistic E and s values. We did not find explanation why, but doing the deconvolution of glow curves for each heating rate we found more realistic results. The deconvolution has shown four peaks at 110°C, 146°C, 191°C ands 245°C with E-values, respectively equal to 1.229eV, 1,23eV, 1.24eV and 1,25 eV. The EPR spectrum of natural sample consisted of six signals of Mn^(2+) and strong Fe^(3+) signal at g=2,0. The irradiation of the order of tens of kGy produced a signal around g=2,003 due to radiation induced F-center. The reflectance spectrum shows a dip around 600- 800nm which corresponds to an absorption band of the same wavelength and is responsible for blue colour.

Lapis Lazuli é um mineral de silicato, que foi objeto do presente estudo. Trata-se de uma solução sólida complexa de outros quatro minerais de silicato, a saber: sodalita, noselita, huainita, e lazurita. Essa composição da solução sólida não permite estimar a porcentagem de cada mineral componente, no analise de fluorescência de raios X, onde se obteve que os principiais óxidos componentes do lapis lazuli são, (em % mol) SiO_2 (33,2), CaO (16,3), MgO (12,1) e Al_2 O_3 (10,1) e, em menor concentração , Na_2 O (6,10), SiO_3 (5,90), Fe_2 O_3 (2,05), K_2 O (1,90) e outros óxidos em concentrações menores. Para a caracterização da amostra de lapis lazuli, foram utilizados termoluminescência (TL), ressonância paramagnética eletrônica (EPR) e técnicas de espectroscopia de reflectância. Em TL, é claro, as curvas de emissão da amostra natural, irradiada ou com tratamento térmico têm sido utilizadas. Uma curva de emissão da amostra natural apresentou picos em 296°C e a 372°C , mas as amostras irradiadas mostraram picos em 140°C, 250°C e 350°C. Logo mostrou - se que o pico em 140°C, é na verdade, uma sobreposição dos picos em 116°C e 160°C. O segundo pico cresce linearmente com a dose até cerca de 7000-8000 Gy. O lápis-lazúli apresenta um decaimento anômalo. O primeiro pico decaiu a partir de 3400 (u.a) para 1700 (u.a), em 45 horas, o segundo pico decaiu a partir de 8500(u.a) para 3000 (u.a), nas mesmas 45 horas. Para a Avaliação da parâmetros E e s, o método de forma de pico e Tm- Tstop. O terceiro método com base em diversas taxas de aquecimento para a leitura TL, com a utilização direta do método resultou em valores de E e s irrealistas. Não se encontrou a explicação por que, mas ao fazer deconvolução das curvas de emissão para cada taxa de aquecimento encontramos resultados mais realistas. A deconvolução mostrou quatro picos em 110°C, 146°C, 191°C 245°C, com valores E, respectivamente iguais a 1,229 eV ; 1,23eV; 1,24eV e 1,25eV . O espectro de EPR da amostra experimental apresentou seis sinais de Mn^(2+) e um sinal grande de Fe^(3+) com g= 2,0. A irradiação da ordem de dezenas de kGy produzido um sinal em torno de g=2,003 devido ao centro em F induzido pela radiação. O espectro de refletância mostra um vale em torno de 600 a 800 nm, que corresponde a uma banda de absorção do mesmo comprimento de onda e é responsável pela coloração azul. / Lapis Lazuli is a natural silicate mineral investigated in the present work. It is a complex solid solution of four other silicate minerals, sodalite, Nosean, Hanyne and Lazurite. This compositon of solid solution does not allow the estimate of the percentage of each mineral component from the result of X ray fluorescence analysis, which has revealed as main oxide components of lapis lazuli as (in mol % ) SiO_2 (33,2), CaO (16,3), MgO (12,1) and Al_2 O_3 (10,1) and in smaller concentrations Na_2 O (6,10), SiO_3 (5,90), Fe_2 O_3 (2,05), K_2 O (1,90) plus others in even smaller concentration. For the characterization of the lapis lazuli sample, we used thermoluminescence (TL), electronic paramagnetic resonance (EPR) and reflectance spectroscopy techniques. In TL, of course, glow curves of natural or irradiated or annealed samples have been used.\\\\ A typical glow curve presented peaks at 296.5°C and at 372°C, but irradiated sample has shown peaks at 140°C, 250°C and 350°C. Later it was shown that 140 °C peak is actually a superposition of 116°C and 160°C peaks. The second peak is the prominent one and its height grows linearly with the dose up to about 7000 to 8000 Gy. Lapis lazuli presents an anomalous fading. The first peak decays from 3400 (a.u.) to 1700 (a.u.) in 45 hours, the second peak decays from 8500 (a.u.) to 3000 (a.u.) in the same 45 hours. For the evalution of parameters E and s, peak shape method and Tm-Tstop methods have been used. The third method based on various heating rates for TL reading, with the direct use of method yielded unrealistic E and s values. We did not find explanation why, but doing the deconvolution of glow curves for each heating rate we found more realistic results. The deconvolution has shown four peaks at 110°C, 146°C, 191°C ands 245°C with E-values, respectively equal to 1.229eV, 1,23eV, 1.24eV and 1,25 eV. The EPR spectrum of natural sample consisted of six signals of Mn^(2+) and strong Fe^(3+) signal at g=2,0. The irradiation of the order of tens of kGy produced a signal around g=2,003 due to radiation induced F-center. The reflectance spectrum shows a dip around 600- 800nm which corresponds to an absorption band of the same wavelength and is responsible for blue colour.

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Ces travaux portent sur plusieurs facettes de l’emploi du bleu dans les miniatures persanes. Ils se fondent sur un corpus constitué de 56 manuscrits à peintures, appartenant à la période qui va de l’accession au trône des Safavides jusqu’au règne de Shah Abbâs (soit de 1501 à 1588), et conservés à la Bibliothèque Nationale de France et à la British Library. Ce travail s’articule autour de deux grands axes. Le premier aborde les questions préliminaires relatives aux matériaux et techniques utilisés pour fabriquer la couleur bleue qui se rencontrent dans la peinture persane du XVIe siècle. Cette étude exigeait aussi une définition exacte des noms des nuances de la couleur bleue. Deux catégories de sources textuelles fournissent des informations sur la nature des pigments et le chromatisme employés dans la miniature persane, à savoir les traités techniques et les œuvres scientifiques. L’autre partie de cette thèse présente dans un premier temps une étude picturale détaillée en vue de définir les divers emplacements de la couleur bleue sur les peintures du corpus ; dans un second temps, il est procédé à une analyse textuelle des ouvrages dudit corpus, permettant de confirmer la corrélation des textes avec leurs illustrations quant aux indications liées au choix de la couleur bleue. Ces deux analyses nous mènent vers une synthèse qui aide à comprendre l’aspect symbolique et métaphorique de cette couleur dans l’ensemble de ses représentations picturales. Certaines sources telles que les récits de voyages et les recueils de biographies ou les textes littéraires et mystiques comportent des renseignements précieux sur l’emploi de la couleur bleue dans la société et son contexte culturel. / This research deals with several aspects of the use of blue in Persian miniatures. It is based on a corpus of 56 illustrated manuscripts, dating from the beginning of rule of the Safavids until the reign of Shah Abbas (i.e. from 1501 to 1588 A.D.), preserved in the Bibliothèque nationale de France and the British Library. This work contains two major developments. At first, come the preliminary questions about the materials and techniques used to make the colour blue met in the paintings of the XVIth century. This study also required an exact definition of the names of shades of blue. Two categories of textual sources provide information about the nature of the pigments and the chromatics used in the Persian miniature; they are technical treaties and scientific works. The other part of this thesis is made up of pictorial studies which allow us to determine the location of the colour blue in painting. This approach is coupled with an analysis of the illustrated texts in order to confirm the correlation between pictures and texts when dealing with the colour blue. Both analyses lead to a synthesis that helps us understand the symbolic and metaphorical aspects of this colour in all its pictorial uses. Some sources such as travelogues and biographies or literary and mystical texts contain information on the use of blue in society and its cultural context.

L’étude des matériaux et des décors colorés de l’abbatiale Cluny III s’inscrit dans le cadre du projet Gunzo (Arts et Métiers ParisTech – Cluny) qui avait pour but la valorisation du patrimoine clunisien par l'intermédiaire des technologies numériques en réalité virtuelle. Un des axes de ce projet était d’élaborer une restitution virtuelle de la Maior Ecclesia en recréant une architecture la plus proche possible de la réalité à l’aide de l’étude des vestiges et des sources iconographiques et historiques qui nous sont parvenus associée aux recherches archéologiques les plus récentes. Outre l’architecture, il s’agissait également de proposer une restitution des décors de l’abbatiale et de son ambiance colorée. Nous avons concentré nos recherches, dans ce travail doctoral, sur les fragments de vitraux archéologiques mis au jour sur les sites de Cluny et de Paray-le-Monial, ainsi que sur les polychromies des fragments lapidaires du portail roman de Cluny, par une approche archéométrique. Les vitraux sont des éléments filtrants qui modulent la lumière tant en quantité qu’en coloration et jouent donc un rôle important dans la création d’une ambiance lumineuse et colorée. Les décors polychromes participent également à l’amélioration et la coloration de l’éclairement. De plus la connaissance des matériaux d’origine est préalable à toute restitution virtuelle en raison de la possible altération des pigments ou des décors métalliques (modification de la couleur) et d’éventuels repeints pouvant induire des changements de parti coloré.Une grande majorité des fragments de verre ont été mis au jour dans des contextes de remblais limitant leur datation à une approche typo-chronologique. Les classifications archéologiques élaborées ont été confrontées aux résultats d’analyses physico-chimiques qui nous ont permis d’affiner la datation de certains fragments et nous ont apporté de nombreux détails techniques. En ce qui concerne le portail de la Maior Ecclesia, qui occupe une place centrale dans l’art roman, nous avons précisé l’image de ce « puzzle lapidaire » tant au niveau de l’iconographie que de la polychromie. L’analyse physico-chimique des restes colorés a permis d’identifier les différents matériaux mis en œuvre dans la décoration du portail. Nous avons pu observer quatre phases polychromes, l’utilisation de pigments coûteux et l’abondance des décors métalliques.Nous avons ainsi contribué à la compréhension des décors colorés de l’abbatiale clunisienne. Cette étude représente une étape dans la compréhension d’un patrimoine archéologique qui, tôt ou tard, sera enrichi ; rappelons en effet qu’une partie des fragments de l’abbatiale est encore enfouie. / The study of materials and coloured decors of the abbey-church Cluny III is part of the Gunzo project (Arts et Métiers ParisTech – Cluny) which led the research and the promotion of the cluniac heritage thanks to digital technologies and virtual reality. This interdisciplinary team worked on the creation of a new digital model of the Maior Ecclesia, according to the latest scientific research, including the archaeological excavations and the study of the documentary and iconographic sources. Besides the architecture, it was also to propose a restoration of the decors of the abbey-church and its colourful atmosphere.The research in this doctoral work is focused on the fragments of archeological glass windows excavated in the sites of Cluny and Paray-le-Monial, as well as on the polychromies of the lapidary fragments of the Great Portal of Cluny using an archaeometric approach. The stained glass windows are filter elements that modulate the light in quantity and in colour. As such, they play a key role in creating a luminous and colourful atmosphere. The polychrome decors also contribute to the improvement and coloration of the lighting. Moreover, knowing the original materials is a prerequisite for any virtual restoration because of the possible alteration of pigments or metal decorations (color change) and possible repaints which can induce changes in colourful design.A large majority of glass fragments were excavated in the ruins of the churches, restricting their dating to a typo-chronological approach. The archaeological classifications performed from the relative chronology, typology and appearance of the vitreous material were compared with results of physicochemical analyses. These helped to refine the dating of certain fragments and identified many technical details. With regard to the portal of the Maior Ecclesia, which occupies a central place in the Romanesque art, the picture of this "lapidary puzzle" in iconography and in polychromy has been clarified. The characterization of the colourful remains has enabled identification of the different materials used in the decoration of the portal. Four polychrome phases, the use of expensive pigments and abundance of metal decorations were observed.In this way, this research has contributed to the understanding of the colourful decors of the Maior Ecclesia. This study represents a stage in the comprehension of an archaeological heritage which, sooner or later, will be further enhanced. It is important to remember that fragments of the abbey-church remain buried.

No / The differentiation between genuine and fake lapis lazuli specimens using Raman spectroscopy is assessed using laboratory and portable instrumentation operating at two longer wavelengths of excitation in the near-infrared, namely 1064 and 785 nm. In spite of the differences between the spectra excited here in the near infrared and those reported in the literature using visible excitation, it is clear that Raman spectroscopy at longer wavelengths can provide a means of differentiating between the fakes studied here and genuine lapis lazuli. The Raman spectra obtained from portable instrumentation can also achieve this result, which will be relevant for the verification of specimens which cannot be removed from collections and for the identification of genuine lapis lazuli inlays in, for example, complex jewellery and furniture. The non-destructive and non-contact character of the technique offers a special role for portable Raman spectroscopy in forensic art analysis.

Ce mémoire a pour cadre la Mésopotamie du sud au IIIe millénaire avant notre ère. Il présente les relations existant entre l'État, alors une nouvelle forme d'organisation politique, et un secteur d'activité économique : le commerce. Cette étude tend à démontrer que les échanges longues distances entre la Mésopotamie et les régions voisines étaient fortement reliés à l'État. Les raisons de liens si étroits sont à chercher dans les besoins économiques et idéologiques des institutions étatiques. Pour le démontrer, j'ai réalisé une étude comparative de deux produits de nature et fonctions opposées : le cuivre, d'usage technologique, et le lapis-lazuli, destiné à des fins idéologiques. Les points communs et les différences sur la manière et les raisons pour lesquelles ces produits sont échangés viennent confirmer le rôle de l'État comme principal instigateur des échanges longues distances à cette époque. / Québec Université Laval, Bibliothèque 2014