Orientador: Celia Marina de Alvarenga Freire / Dissertação (mestrado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Faculdade de Engenharia Mecanica / Made available in DSpace on 2018-07-28T23:57:37Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Silva_JoseRochaAndradeda_M.pdf: 3642803 bytes, checksum: e91a23ef6d38a032df085e07b32843f1 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2000 / Resumo: Os acumuladores de energia estacionários devem ser periodicamente avaliados quanto à sua capacidade de carga, visando assegurar que sua energia acumulada poderá ser prontamente utilizada, quando das falhas do sistema de alimentação convencional. Normalmente, essas avaliações são realizadas através dos testes de capacidade, que apresentam como principais desvantagens, o fato do banco de baterias permanecer indisponível, durante a realização do teste, e o desperdício da energia acumulada nas baterias. Neste trabalho á avaliada a potencialidade do método de espectroscopia de impedância eletroquímica como ferramenta na determinação do estado-de-carga de baterias chumbo-ácidas, através da análise das relações dos seus parâmetros eletroquímicos e sua quantidade de carga armazenada / Abstract: Stationary lead-acid batteries must have their charge capacity periodically evaluated in order to assure that they are ready to supply energy during conventional supplier faults. Normally, these evaluations are conduct by capacity tests, which present these main disadvantages: batteries remain unavailable while tests are conducted and total energy accumulated in batteries is dissipate during the tests. In this work electrochemical impedance spectroscopy is evaluated as a tool to assess the lead., acid batteries¿ state-of-charge, by analysing the co-relations between battery electrochemical parameters and its stored energy / Mestrado / Materiais e Processos de Fabricação / Mestre em Engenharia Mecânica

One of the technical advances made by the lead-acid battery industry in the field of portable power supply was the development of the valve regulated lead-acid battery (VRLA). This battery reduced the necessity for periodic servicing in terms of having to replenish the cells with distilled water. Further, this new type of battery can now be installed near sensitive electronic equipment without the danger of acid spill or dangerous fumes being emitted. In addition, longer service performance is achieved in terms of life cycle capacity, when compared to the conventional flooded type batteries. However, the new type of battery requires the manufacturing of high precision electrodes and components with low tolerances for error. In order for the manufacturers to produce such a premium product, a thorough understanding of the electrochemistry of the inner components is necessary. None of the South African lead-acid battery manufacturers are currently making VRLA batteries to supply a very competitive global market, where a large range of sizes and capabilities are available. In order to introduce the VRLA battery into such a competing market in South Africa, a niche area for its application was identified in order to establish the viability of manufacturing such a battery locally. This is done by integrating the VRLA concept into an existing battery, such as the miners cap lamp (MCL) battery. Its application is specific with well-defined performance criteria in a relatively large consumable market in the South African mining industry. The study looked at various components within a local manufacturing environment that required a better understanding and modification of the processes to build VRLA MCL batteries. This included a detailed study of the manufacturing processes of the positive electrode. The study involved the investigation of the types of grid alloys used, the type of electrode design, such as tubular or flat plate, the addition of redlead to the paste mixing process and subjecting the batteries to accelerated life cycle testing. A better understanding of the oxygen recombination cycle was also performed in order to evaluate the correct use of certain design criteria in the manufacturing process. This included the study of the pressure release valve and the type of positive electrode used. The study also looked at developing an inexpensive analytical technique to evaluate the porosity of cured and formed electrodes using a glycerol displacement method. The monitoring of the state of health (SoH) of VRLA batteries on a continuous basis is an important parameter in unique applications such as remote power supply. A device was developed to monitor the SoH of VRLA batteries on a continuous basis. The working principle of the device was tested on a MCL VRLA battery. With the development of other types of VRLA batteries for specific applications such as in stand-by power supplies, the monitoring device would then be integrated in the battery design.

Lead acid batteries are widely used in domestic, industrial and automotive applications. Even after lot of advancements in battery technologies, lead acid cells are still in use because of their high capacity and low cost. To use any battery effectively, first we should be able to identify the available capacity or State of Charge (SoC). There are many techniques available to measure SoC of a lead acid battery. One such unique method is to measure the capacity using eddy current sensors. This method is unique because it is non-obtrusive and online. Eddy current sensors (ECS) are wire wound inductors which work on the principle of electromagnetic induction. Eddy currents are the currents generated on a conductive material when it is kept in a varying magnetic. Eddy current sensors generate varying magnetic eldest and will be able to identify the properties of conductive materials like thickness, conductivity, material composition etc. Also they can be used as proximity sensors. Lead acid batteries use lead metal as cathode. Upon usage(discharge) the lead metal converts to lead sulfate and revert back to lead after charging. These changes in lead electrode can be monitored using eddy current sensors. The impedance of an eddy current sensor will change when it is kept close to the lead electrode when the battery is charging or discharging. These impedance parameters can be monitored to determine the battery SoC. When lead is deposited on cathode, there will be more eddy current loss in the target and the total resistance of coil increases. On the other hand, when lead is deposited on the electrode because of increase in the magnitude of eddy currents which oppose the source magnetic, the total inductance of coil decreases. We can observe exactly opposite behaviour of coil resistance and inductance when the lead electrode is converted to less conductive lead sulfate. There is a lot of research on using ECS to measure SoC of lead acid batteries and there are still many challenges to be addressed. First we have explained about different circuit designs we have used to monitor the battery capacity using eddy current sensors. After that, we have explained about our complete experimental setup and the procedure to measure the sensor parameters using the setup. Then, we have discussed about different issues involved in the eddy current sensing based state of charge measurement. Eddy current sensors are affected by temperature variations. We have studied the coil resistance behaviour with temperature at different frequencies using simulations and experiments. We have obtained the conditions for linear variation of coil resistance with temperature. The measured temperature compensation scheme is applied and the results are discussed. We have also modified the measurement system design in order to minimize the lift o errors. We have used a metallic clamp structure to minimize the lift o errors. We have used finite element analysis based simulations to study different design parameters and their effect on the sensitivity of eddy current sensor. We have created 2D eddy current models and the sensitivity of coil resistance is computed by changing the coil dimensions and the core permeability. We have also performed error analysis and computed the error due to the tilt angle shift between coil and electrode. We have also computed the error due to the internal heating of battery. We have also studied the effect of acid strati cation on state of charge for both sealed and hooded batteries. We have proposed a multi coil method to minimize the errors in SoC measurement due to acid strati cation for Flooded type batteries. We have used finite element analysis based simulations to compute the error due to acid strati cation by increasing the number of coils. Finally we have derived the equation for electrode Q factor using the transformer model of eddy current sensor. The derived Q factor equation is then used to study the aging of lead acid batteries both by using experiments and simulations. Finally we have explained a detail procedure to measure the state of charge(SoC) and state of health(SoH) of a hooded lead acid battery using eddy current sensing method.

Fuel cells have the potential to provide clean power for a variety of uses including stand-alone residential power. But to increase the acceptance of fuel cells for off-grid generation, the cost of the energy management system must be greatly reduced. Of the many ways to accomplish this, this paper looks at reducing cost through topology changes and elimination of current sensors. A dual 2.5kW non-isolated bidirectional boost converter is designed and analyzed. The various bidirectional boost topologies are compared on cost and ability to meet the specifications. A sensorless average current mode is designed, implemented and verified through testing in a low-cost fixed-point DSP. Both boost and buck modes are accurately modeled and voltage and current controllers are designed for good closed-loop response. The accuracy of the sensorless average current measurement is investigated in both modes of operation. A classical dual-loop controller is implemented in boost mode with the sensorless average current and in buck mode, a dual controller operating in either current or voltage mode is implemented. The design is verified through testing in boost and buck mode and it is shown that the results are acceptable. / Master of Science

Subsequent to the studies on precursor lead-acid systems by Daniel, Grove and Sindesten, practical lead-acid batteries began with the research and inventions of Raymond Gaston Planté in France as early as in 1859, and, even to-day, lead-acid battery remains the most successful battery system ever developed, and no other battery is yet able to compete with lead-acid batteries on cost grounds, albeit batteries based on other chemistries are rapidly catching up. In the past, although lead-acid battery designs have been optimized in several different directions, there are still certain new challenges facing the lead-acid battery designers as additional failure modes become evident in various use modes. There are three types of lead-acid batteries in common use: (a) batteries with flooded or excess electrolyte, (b) low-maintenance lead-acid batteries with a large excess of electrolyte, and (c) batteries with immobilized electrolyte and a pressure-sensitive valve usually referred to as absorptive glass-microfibre (AGM) valve-regulated lead-acid (VRLA) batteries. The flooded-electrolyte lead-acid battery requires checking of specific gravity of electrolyte, periodic addition of water to maintain electrolyte level above the plates and recharge soon after discharge to prevent hard sulfation that causes loss of capacity. The emission of acid fumes corrodes metallic parts in the vicinity of the battery, and the seepage of acid on the top cover of the batteries leads to leakage current resulting in increased self-discharge and ground-shunt hazards. To overcome these problems, AGMVRLA batteries based on oxygen-recombination cycle have emerged. These batteries offer the freedom of battery placement, cyclability without the addition of water or checking the specific gravity, increased safety, and superior performance in some instances. Both flooded-electrolyte and AGM-VRLA batteries can suffer from acid stratification. But, AGM-VRLA batteries are especially susceptible to failures owing to the heat generated by oxygen recombination within the cells as well as due to cell-to-cell variations in electrolyte volumes. Indeed, partial heating of AGM-VRLA batteries could cause dry-out with grid corrosion and even lead to thermal runaway. Consequently, mitigating temperature variations in AGM-VRLA batteries becomes seminal to their commercial success. A dissipation of local heat within the AGM-VRLA batteries can be achieved by adequately filling the void volume in the battery with a thermally conducting gel, such as a gel formed from colloidal silica and sulfuric-acid electrolyte. Although, conventional lead-acid batteries are considered rather a matured technology, significant research and development efforts are currently under way to enhance their performance. Indeed, many improvements have been made in the lead-acid battery since its invention, and although the essential electrochemistry remains unchanged, the modern lead-acid batteries have little semblance to those produced 50 years ago. Over the years, seminal advances have been made in the lead-alloys used, in the materials and design of separators, in battery packaging and in their construction methods, which have led to lead-acid batteries with improved performance, lighter weight and lower cost. This thesis is an attempt to develop lightweight hybrid-VRLA batteries.

Made available in DSpace on 2017-07-24T19:38:05Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Micheli Barbosa de Andrade.pdf: 2002962 bytes, checksum: 51f76c0895430f8d105003d680198199 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2011-02-03 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / In Brazil, the main source of lead metal is derived from recycled lead-acid batteries by the pyrometallurgical process. The process consists in separating the components of lead-acid battery and subsequent fusion of the metal in the furnace to reduce the rotational type. Recycling is an economical alternative, sustainable and environmentally friendly but, recycling industries are potentially polluting. During the process, there is generating a large amount of slag, which may contain metals that were present in raw material or that were added to the reactions necessary to promote the recycling process. This slag is classified as Class I waste, hazardous waste, according to Brazilian standard NBR 10004 Brazilian Association of Technical Standards and (ABNT) and must have as the final destination of hazardous waste landfill. The contribution of this paper lies in the chemical evaluation of the slag from the recycling of lead batteries; structural characterizations, indicate that in turn, forms of association of the metal, and their potential to mobilize heavy metals from the method of Tessier (Method of selective extraction applied to soils and sediments) applied to the residue in order to evaluate the conditions in which metals can be removed in the same. Data from x-ray fluorescence (XRF) showed a predominance of the elements Fe, Si, S, Al, Ca, Pb and Zn, with the initial sample had a higher quality metals and in a much higher sample. By x-ray diffraction was obtained to confirm these associated elements, forming compounds. The fayalite was present in all samples, mainly in lower and central samples, as well as lead sulfide and iron sulfide, the large overlap of the peaks difficult to visualize the phases. The evaluation of the mobilization of metals from the Tessier method and comparison with the VMP CONAMA 357 demonstrated the potential risks, direct or indirect, of the mobilization of these metals. With the application of different conditions of leaching of the method of Tessier, one can observe that treatment of these slags in pH 5.0 extracts about 90% of lead present in the slag. / No Brasil, a principal fonte de chumbo metalico e obtido a partir da reciclagem de baterias de chumbo-acido pelo processo pirometalurgico. O processo consiste na separacao dos componentes da bateria de chumbo-acido e posterior fusao dos metais no forno de reducao do tipo rotatorio. Esta e uma alternativa economica, sustentavel e ecologicamente correta mas, as industrias de reciclagem sao potencialmente poluidoras. Durante o processo, ha geracao de uma grande quantidade de escoria, que pode conter metais que estavam presentes na matéria prima ou que foram adicionados para promover as reacoes necessarias ao processo. Essa escoria e classificada como residuo de classe I, residuo perigoso, segundo a norma brasileira NBR 10004 da Associacao Brasileira de Normas e Tecnicas (ABNT) e deve ter como destino final o aterro de industriais. A contribuicao deste estudo reside na avaliacao quimica da escoria proveniente da reciclagem de baterias de chumbo; as caracterizacoes estruturais, que indicam por sua vez, as formas de associacao do metal; e o seu o potencial de mobilizacao de metais a partir do metodo de Tessier (metodo de extracoes seletivas aplicado a solos e sedimentos) aplicado ao residuo como forma de avaliar as condicoes em que os metais podem ser removidos do mesmo. Pelos dados de fluorescencia de raios x (FRX) observou-se predominância dos elementos Fe, Si, S, Al, Ca, Pb e Zn, sendo que na amostra inicial houve uma maior qualidade de metais e na amostra superior uma maior quantidade. Pela difracao de raios x obteve-se a confirmacao destes elementos associados, formando compostos. A fayalita estava presente em todas as amostras, principalmente nas amostras inferior e central, assim como sulfeto de chumbo e sulfeto de ferro; a grande superposicao dos picos dificultou a visualizacao das fases. A avaliacao da mobilizacao dos metais a partir do metodo de Tessier e a comparacao com os VMP do CONAMA 357 demonstraram os riscos potenciais, diretos ou indiretos, da mobilizacao desses metais. Com a aplicacao das diferentes condicoes de lixiviação do metodo de Tessier, pode-se observar que o tratamento dessas escorias em pH 5,0 extrai cerca de 90% do chumbo presente na escoria.

Unmanned ground and aerial vehicles (UGVs and UAVs) have strict payload limitations, limited free space affecting on board power availability resulting in limited endurance and operational range. This limitation is exacerbated by the addition of sensors, actuators and other related equipment needed to accomplish mission objectives in diverse applications. Two energy sources are mainly available for mobile applications; batteries and fuel cells. Batteries are a relatively cheap, tested technology with good performance under varying loads. On the other hand, fuel cells offer fast and easy refueling solutions. Furthermore, preliminary studies have shown that a hybrid system can combine the advantages of both technologies offering a superior system. It is true that for most outdoors applications, payload needs, sensor suite utilization and energy requirements are apriori unpredictable. This makes proper sizing of energy storage devices and the prediction of remaining available energy rather difficult tasks. This research proposes an indirect way of improving the operational range for UAVs of Vertical Take Off and Landing (VTOLs), since the VTOL vehicle is transported to the mission site without the need to fly. The proposed gimballed platform, which will be a power source itself, rotates around two axes perpendicular to each other, allowing the VTOL to take-off and land, regardless of the position of the UGV, while securing it during transportation. The UGV can also serve as a charging station for the VTOL. Furthermore, this research proposes a Matlab Simulation tool that can simulate the energy and power demand of small to mid-sized robotic vehicles. This model will simulate the power consumption in the motors based on Skid steering, road gradient, linear and angular velocity. With the energy and power requirements estimated, a Matlab optimization tool is proposed to be used to determine the optimal configuration of a power system for mobile applications under constraints relating to capacity/runtime, weight, volume, cost, and system complexity. The configuration will be based on commercially available batteries, and fuel cells to significantly reduce cost and delivery time. The optimization tool can be used for any mobile application. Finally, a new model is proposed for the accurate prediction of battery runtime and remaining energy for single battery discharge. This model reformulates Peukert's equation and achieves higher accuracy by introducing a new concept of variable exponent which is a function of battery capacity and discharge current.

Thesis (MEng)--Stellenbosch University, 2004. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: This thesis presents the design of a DSP based controller system for an auxiliary converter for generic energy storage connection to a line-interactive power compensator. The aim is to utilize a wide range of energy storage systems and incorporate them into the existing power compensator. This was done by adding a second converter to the system. The new controller was developed to control this converter and thereby the energy storage. A study was done on lead acid batteries, flow batteries and flywheels in order to gain a basic understanding of these systems and identify the requirements for their control. Based on these findings, a new DSP based controller and measuring system was developed. To test the new system a dc to dc converter was implemented for the control of lead acid and flow batteries. A dc to ac converter was also tested for the control of flywheel energy storage. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die tesis handeloor die ontwerp van'n DSP gebaseerde beheerstelsel vir 'n Iyninteraktiewe on-onderbreekbare kragbron met drywings-kompensasie met 'n hulp omsetter vir algemene enegiestoor koppeling. The doel is om 'n wye verskeindheid energie store in die huidige drywings elektroniese stelsel te inkorporeer. 'n Tweede omstetter is by die stelsel gevoeg om die energie stelsel te beheer. 'n Nuwe beheerder is ontwikkel om die omsetter te beheer en daardeur die energie stoor. Loodsuur batterye, vloei batterye en vliegwiele is ondersoek om 'n basiese begrip te vorm en te identifiseer wat nodig is vir die beheer van sulke energie store. Die nuwe DSP beheerder en meetstelsel is ontwikkel gebaseer op hierde ondervindings. Om die nuwe beheerstelsel te toets is 'n gs na gs omsetter geïmplementeer vir die beheer van loodsuur en floei batterye. Die omsetter is geherkonfigureer na 'n gs na ws opstelling en getoets. Die konfigurasie word gebruik vir die beheer van vliegwiele.

At the nuclear power plant in Forsmark, several different securitysystems are used. One of these systems comprises uninterruptiblepower supply (UPS) and consists of lead-acid batteries. The batteries are dimensioned to supply the load for two hours and are constantly charged. This to ensure they’re fully charged in case the regular power source fails. Discoveries have been made that the lifetime of the batteries are shorter than calculated and this thesis examines if the environmental temperature is the reason. Higher temperatures will cause the batteries to corrode more easily which leads to a decrease of the capacity of the batteries. The temperature have been logged in selected areas during two weeks in April 2018. The results have been compared to the meteorological temperature and analyzed together with capacity tests of the batteries. The batteries that have inferior results in the capacity tests are placed in spaces with high temperatures and needs to be cooled as soon as possible. In longterm, installation of a proper cooling system is recommended. To measure the temperature during several periods throughout the year ensures if the meteorological temperature affects the environment of the batteries. If so, more spaces where batteries are placed may need cooling during the hotter period of the year.

This thesis project solve problematic of thermal proces in lead-acid batteries. There are decribed history of lead – acid batteries, distributions of batteries, overview of construction lead – acid batteries and VRLA batteries and is decribed thermal runaway proces and basic termal process. They are listed here practical results and the measurements is concluded.