The competitive advantage of velvet beans as an economic agricultural commodity. In the past 40 years, although food insecurity, poverty and environmental degradation persist, worldwide farmers have made considerable progress in increasing per capita food production whilst better understanding natural-resource management. Literature indicates that — in the decades to come — food demand will both grow and change for three reasons, namely increased numbers of people, increased income (people will have more purchasing power), and increased urbanisation (people will be more likely to adopt new diets containing animal protein and cereal). The world population is expected to increase to 8,9 billion by 2050, with 84% in the developing countries. Food insecurity and malnutrition are expected to persist despite progress on average per capita consumption of food. As a complex system, and despite challenges, agriculture must produce simultaneously unprecedented abundance of food and unparalleled social concerns. As a business, agriculture requires high capital investments in land, facilities and production inputs; most often producing commodities of generally low unit value with thin profit margins, thereby forcing producers to strive for efficiency in all aspects of production. Therefore, it is of utmost importance that farmers should understand sustainable agriculture; where a more sustainable food-production system seeks to make the best use of nature’s goods and services whilst not being harmful to the environment. Sustainable agriculture should maximise the productivity of the land; should focus on locally adapted resource-conserving technologies which assist whole system redesign and large-scale adoption; and should aim to minimise the use of harmful non-renewable and fossil-fuel derived inputs. Fertilisers have not replaced the function of organic matter and other management practices; but soil erosion and toxic waste rather did increase disproportionately along with increased agricultural production. This has led to a progressive decline in crop and land productivity as a result of soil degradation, water contamination, increasing problems of weed infestation, pests and diseases. Often the apparent absence of sustainable productive agricultural systems within the scope of commercial farmers is not because of the lack in technology or low yield potential of traditional varieties, but rather on account of the limited knowledge or lack of awareness on the part of farmers about sustainable production practices which function in harmony with their farming environment. As one of the keys to success the velvet bean — which can grow almost everywhere — is an example of the introduction of a simple regenerative component into a farming system, as well as boosting the capacity of a farmer for local adaptation of the technology. Integrating the natural processes of nutrient cycling, nitrogen fixation and introducing natural enemies of pests into food production processes can contribute to minimising environmental damage and/or health of the farmer and the consumer. Using the knowledge and skills of farmers helps to improve their self-reliance and to solve a common management problem, such as social- and human-capital management. The velvet bean is seen as an answer to the agricultural problem of low nutrient supply to the staple crop of maize. The bean creates ground cover, regenerates, fertilises the soil, controls weeds and adds organic matter and nutrients. In arid South Africa the crop is one of the strongest defences of the farmer against the harmful effects of El Niño — with the bean protecting the soil, holding water and fertilising the land with its leaves. With the velvet bean farmers can grow their own organic and inexpensive fertilisers. Commercial fertilisers are becoming more and more expensive and their benefit is decreasing because of a degrading soil resource base. Furthermore, the rise in production costs makes total reliance on inorganic fertilisers more uneconomical for most growers in the agricultural sector; making it imperative for researchers to come up with options which increase the efficient use of fertiliser, and also to identify other nutrient sources — such as legumes — that are not capital intensive. The velvet-bean technique is known to researchers and farmers worldwide for a considerable amount of time, but not in our country. As the technique becomes better known to South African farmers, it can be considered in a broader sense as a modern way to add nitrogen to the soil; benefitting, amongst others, the subsequent crop. The velvet-bean approach has a window of opportunity which can lead to higher yields in crop production, decline in labour costs, crop diversification, as well as agro-processing — all resulting in improved food security for South Africa. Adopting the velvet bean into a production system can benefit a farmer, by achieving maize yields of 3 t/ha–4 t/ha (similar to yields normally obtained with recommended levels of fertilisation at 130 kg N/ha) without applied nitrogen fertiliser or input for weeding. Velvet beans, as an intercrop, can provide more than 100 kg N/ha to the following crop. However, literature shows a declining trend over time for all systems, which suggests that additional external inputs (probably P and K fertiliser) are required to achieve full sustainability. The adoption of the velvet bean in the South African maize industry would result in import savings of about 158 million tons of urea or about R591 billion/year. Information presented in this mini-dissertation is considered to be the current state of knowledge on establishing, managing, and utilising the velvet bean as a legume in South Africa’s commodity market; with the belief that it will expand the use of the bean, and will enhance the benefits from its use. / MBA, North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2015

A incidência de altas concentrações de selênio (Se) no solo é relatada em várias partes do mundo. Em regiões do estado de São Paulo se observou deficiência em gramíneas, provavelmente associadas ao solo, que em alguns países é corrigido através de fertilização. O Se é essencial aos animais e sua deficiência implica na ocorrência de doenças e nas plantas superiores sua essencialidade também foi constatada. É relevante a falta de informações sobre o assunto a ser estudado, principalmente em solos tropicais. O objetivo da pesquisa foi à obtenção de informações sobre Se no sistema solo x planta. O experimento foi conduzido na FZEA/USP, e constou de uma fase de levantamento de dados sobre os teores de Se em diferentes solos brasileiros e para o teor foliar de Brachiaria decumbens neles desenvolvidas. A segunda fase consistiu na avaliação da aplicação de doses Selenato de sódio em solos considerados com teores deficientes de Se com o cultivo da gramínea Brachiaria brizantha [(Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf] cv. Marandu e da leguminosa Stylosanthes capitata cv. Campo Grande avaliando os reflexos do micronutriente na nutrição mineral da planta, o que tem implicação direta na nutrição animal. O delineamento experimental foi inteiramente casualizado, em fatorial 3x2x3, sendo os fatores: 1º Fator: tipos de solo (Argissolo Amarelo, Latossolo Vermelho e Nitossolo Vermelho eutroférrico); 2º Fator: plantas forrageiras (Brachiaria brizantha e Stylosanthes capitata) e o 3º Fator: doses de selênio (0, 10 e 20 g.ha-1), com 4 repetições e realização de dois cortes (30 e 80 dias após a uniformização) e os dados foram analisados pelo proc mixed do SAS (2004). Na primeira fase verificou-se que os solos avaliados apresentaram baixos teores de Se e consequentemente, a gramínea desenvolvida neles apresentaram teores considerados deficientes, confirmando a relação do Se no solo e na planta que, pode ser variável de solo para solo. Os teores no solo apresentaram correlação negativa com o teor de areia. A leguminosa apresentou maior capacidade de absorção uma vez que, as doses aplicadas nos solos não foram satisfatórias para que a gramínea atingisse teores foliares necessários para suprir as exigências do animal. No caso da leguminosa a dose de 10 g.ha-1 já foi suficiente para que a planta atingisse o teor requerido, porém o aumento dos teores de Se na parte vegetal foram acompanhados por uma significativa redução nos teores de proteína. As doses não modificaram a produção de massa seca, mas alteraram a composição química das plantas com interferência nos teores de Ca na gramínea e de Ca, S, Fe e Mn na leguminosa. A fertilização do solo com doses de até 20 g.ha-1 de Se em pastagens consorciadas com leguminosas pode favorecer o aumento do consumo de Se pelos animais, porém em um curto espaço de tempo. Em pastagens solteiras, somente com Brachiaria brizantha essas doses foram baixas assegurando a necessidade de mais estudos para que seja possível a recomendação de doses eficientes sem correr riscos de intoxicação do animal, ou mesmo da planta. / High Selenium (Se) concentrations in soil are reported in some places around the world. Deficiencies in grasses were observed in São Paulo´s state areas, probably associated with soil´s quantity of Selenium. Some countries correct this deficiency through of fertilization. Se is essential to animals and its deficiency causes diseases. Se essentiality in plants was evidenced. There is few scientific information about this subject, mainly in tropical soils. Research object was to get information about Se in soil x plant system. The research was realized in FZEA/USP and it had a part of datacollecting of Se quantities in Brazilian soils, and also Se quantities in plant (Brachiaria decumbens) developed in these soils. The second part involved different levels´ application of Sodium selenate in soils with cultures of one grassy Brachiaria brizantha [(Hochst. ex A. Rich.) Stapf] cv. Marandu and of one legume Stylosanthes capitata cv. Campo Grande. These soils were deficient in Se quantities. It was evaluated the consequences of the Selenium in plants mineral nutrition because its implication in animals nutrition. Experimental design was randomized blocks with factorial 3x2x3: 1º Factor: soils kinds (typic hapludalf, Oxisol, Red Dusky Podzol); 2º Factor: forages (Brachiaria brizantha e Stylosanthes capitata) and 3º Factor: Selenium levels (0, 10 and 20 g.ha-1). It was 4 repetitions and two cuts (30 and 80 days later uniformization). Datum were analyzed in proc mixed of the SAS (2004). The first part of research conclused that the soils had Se low quantities and consequently, the grassy had deficient quantities too. It confirmed the Ses relation soil-plant can be variable of soil to soil. Ses quantities in Soil had presented high negative correlation with sand quantities. Legume had greater capacity to Ses absorption. Levels of Ses applications in soil weren`t satisfactory to grassy, because Ses quantities in plant werent sufficient to supply animal requirement. Legume got enough plant quantity with 10 g.ha-1. However, the increase in plant quantity to legume was followed of significant reduction in protein quantities. Ses levels didn`t modified dry matter production. Ses levels modified plants chemical composition with interference in Ca quantities to grassy and Ca, S, Fe and Mn to legume. Ses animal consumption would be beneficed in pasture with legume in consort with application until 20 g.ha-1 in soil fertilization, however during short period. The levels evaluated wont be sufficient to pastures with only Brachiaria brizantha.This fact assured the necessity of more research to determinate the efficient level without risks of animal intoxication or plant intoxication.

Kura clover (Trifolium ambiguum) is a perennial legume species that has been found to have exceptional persistence in the United States, Australia and New Zealand. There are two challenges that impede the incorporation of Kura clover into pasture mixtures in Alberta. The first is the lack of available seed, and the second is poor establishment success in mixtures with highly competitive grass species. A series of experiments were conducted to (i) address the potential for seed production in a central Alberta environment and (ii) to determine alternative strategies for establishment in mixtures. Kura clover successfully flowered and produced seed under central Alberta growing conditions. Seed production was greater from the cultivar Endura than Cossack. Kura clover seed production was not affected by row spacing however, yield was greater when clover was planted at 3 or 6 kg/ha versus 9 or 12 kg/ha. Seed yield ranged from 80 kg/ha to 350 kg/ha. Establishing Kura clover with a cover crop reduced flowering and seed production. Corn (Zea mays) was the least competitive cover crop, followed by faba bean (Vicia faba L.). Canola (Brassica napus), peas (Pisum sativum L.), barley (Hordeum vulgare) and triticale (X Tritosecale) reduced Kura clover seed yield and are not recommended as cover crops. Comparison of above and below ground competition between Kura clover and meadow bromegrass (Bromus biebersteinii), indicated that below ground competition has the greatest impact on Kura clover seedling growth. Altering seeding rate and delaying introduction of the grass species by up to two months significantly improved Kura clover establishment in mixtures. Kura clover survival in established pastures was higher with physical than chemical sod suppression of the standing forage. Dry matter yield of Kura clover was greatest when defoliated at 6 week intervals. Challenges still remain regarding seed production and establishment of Kura clover. However, we successfully addressed the major concerns regarding the potential of Kura clover in Alberta. / Plant Science

A field experiment from 2003 to 2005 at two sites examined the impacts of forage species and legume proportion on forage sward production. Grasses generally established rapidly and out-yielded swards high in legume content, although legumes did improve forage quality. Alfalfa was retained at greater relative biomass in mixed swards than swards containing clover. Legume persistence also varied depending on neighbouring grass species. A greenhouse study examined competitive interactions between Canada thistle (a common pasture weed), white clover and Kentucky bluegrass during establishment. Although thistle was most susceptible to intra-specific competition, and strongly affected forage yield, the latter also influenced weed biomass. Competitiveness of forages depended directly on soil medium, emphasizing the importance of abiotic factors on vegetation dynamics in mixed swards. / Rangeland and Wildlife Resources

Although plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have shown tremendous potential to be used as inoculants for many agricultural crops, they may not survive severe environmental conditions in the field which could limit their large scale applications. Endophytic bacteria, which can be recovered from inside plant tissues such as roots, stems and leaves, might overcome this limitation due to their unique ecological niche inside plant roots where they are sheltered from external environmental disturbances. Some of these bacterial endophytes have beneficial effects on their host plants and stimulate plant growth or reduce disease symptoms, apparently through mechanisms that are similar to those proposed for PGPR. The objective of this study was to assess a collection of endophytic bacteria for PGPR traits and potential use to enhance the rhizobial-legume symbiosis. Forty isolates obtained from the roots of various plants were identified by fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis, and 16S RNA gene sequencing analysis. The majority (i.e., 75%) were identified as Pseudomonas species. Many of these isolates were able to solubilize phosphate, produce indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), produce aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase, synthesize siderophores and show antagonistic activities against several soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi under in vitro conditions. Selected isolates were further evaluated for the ability to enhance plant growth and nodulation of alfalfa when co-inoculated with Sinorhizobium meliloti under growth chamber conditions using growth pouch and potted soil assays. Results revealed that P. putida strain EB EE 4-25, P. syringae strain EB XDE 4-48, and P. fluorescens strain EB EE 2-23 significantly increased shoot length, root length, enhanced nodulation and increased lateral root formation of alfalfa plants in growth pouch and potted soil assays when co-inoculated with S. meliloti strain P102 compared to plants inoculated with S. meliloti strain P102 alone. Results also suggested that expression of one or more of the mechanisms, such as solubilization of phosphate, production of IAA, production of siderophores, and ACC deaminase production might have played a role in the enhancement of the alfalfa- Sinorhizobium symbiosis. These results suggest that some endophytic bacterial strains may be useful as biofertilizers and/or biocontrol agents in sustainable agricultural practices.

Although plant growth-promoting rhizobacteria (PGPR) have shown tremendous potential to be used as inoculants for many agricultural crops, they may not survive severe environmental conditions in the field which could limit their large scale applications. Endophytic bacteria, which can be recovered from inside plant tissues such as roots, stems and leaves, might overcome this limitation due to their unique ecological niche inside plant roots where they are sheltered from external environmental disturbances. Some of these bacterial endophytes have beneficial effects on their host plants and stimulate plant growth or reduce disease symptoms, apparently through mechanisms that are similar to those proposed for PGPR. The objective of this study was to assess a collection of endophytic bacteria for PGPR traits and potential use to enhance the rhizobial-legume symbiosis. Forty isolates obtained from the roots of various plants were identified by fatty acid methyl ester (FAME) analysis, and 16S RNA gene sequencing analysis. The majority (i.e., 75%) were identified as Pseudomonas species. Many of these isolates were able to solubilize phosphate, produce indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), produce aminocyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid (ACC) deaminase, synthesize siderophores and show antagonistic activities against several soil-borne plant pathogenic fungi under in vitro conditions. Selected isolates were further evaluated for the ability to enhance plant growth and nodulation of alfalfa when co-inoculated with Sinorhizobium meliloti under growth chamber conditions using growth pouch and potted soil assays. Results revealed that P. putida strain EB EE 4-25, P. syringae strain EB XDE 4-48, and P. fluorescens strain EB EE 2-23 significantly increased shoot length, root length, enhanced nodulation and increased lateral root formation of alfalfa plants in growth pouch and potted soil assays when co-inoculated with S. meliloti strain P102 compared to plants inoculated with S. meliloti strain P102 alone. Results also suggested that expression of one or more of the mechanisms, such as solubilization of phosphate, production of IAA, production of siderophores, and ACC deaminase production might have played a role in the enhancement of the alfalfa- Sinorhizobium symbiosis. These results suggest that some endophytic bacterial strains may be useful as biofertilizers and/or biocontrol agents in sustainable agricultural practices.

Consumer preferences for legume cooking properties should be considered at an earlier stage in the breeding process. Hence, we developed an effective, low-cost method to analyze the cooking quality attributes of cowpeas. The objective was to develop a rapid screening method to evaluate the cooking quality attributes of cowpeas (Vigna unguiculata) and compare the results with currently used methods. Soaked samples (five grams) were boiled for 27 min, and seeds and their broth were separated into dishes with covers. Samples were subjectively rated on a 1-5 scale for cooked doneness, tactile texture, aroma intensity, and opacity of the broth. Water absorption, seed splitting, and soluble solid loss were also determined. The samples were evaluated in batches of 25 and replicated three times. Cooking properties showed significant correlations with each other, but did not correlate with raw seed size and color. The method is important because consumer acceptability largely depends on cooking quality in addition to seed appearance. Many properties like cooked doneness and tactile texture were significantly affected by genetics and environment. Compression force determined with a Texture Analyzer (TA) significantly correlated with doneness and tactile texture ratings at -0.67 and -0.69, respectively (P < 0.01). Cooking times from the Mattson bean cooker (MBC) were significantly correlated with doneness and tactile texture at -0.63 and -0.65, respectively (P < 0.05). The Texture Analyzer and MBC confirmed the subjective ratings of cooked doneness and tactile texture. A procedure to determine solid losses using a refractometer, instead of the time-consuming oven-drying method, saved time and has significant promise for use in simple evaluations. The rapid cooking method required 2 hr on the first day and 5 hr on the second day to evaluate 25 samples. The method is efficient, repeatable and uses inexpensive materials compared to the TA and MBC. It also provides descriptive information, and differentiates legume cultivars based on cooking properties. This method is a useful tool in the breeding program for selecting and advancing promising lines. Food processors may also use this method for a quick evaluation to check if their legumes meet required specifications for processing.

No description available.

No description available.

Studies have shown that including perennial forages in cropping rotations can increase soil carbon (C) and lower nitrous oxide (N2O) emissions when compared to continuous annual cropping. Research is needed to evaluate the inclusion of a perennial forage in an annual crop rotation on net carbon dioxide (CO2) and N2O fluxes, natural and agronomic drivers of seasonal greenhouse gases (GHGs), and the possibility of using forages as a C sequestration-CO2 mitigation tool. A long-term field experiment site to determine GHG budgets for Red River Valley cropping systems in Manitoba, Canada was used. The site consisted of four plots with the same annual rotation management history. A perennial legume, alfalfa, was grown in 2008 and 2009 on two plots and spring wheat and industrial oilseed-rapeseed grown on the other two plots in 2008 and 2009, respectively. Nitrous oxide and CO2 fluxes were measured continuously using the flux gradient micrometeorological method. For the net study period, the perennial phase sequestered twice the atmospheric CO2 (2070 kg C ha-1) compared to the annual crops. The annual rotation emitted 3.5 times more N2O than the perennial legume phase. When accounting for harvest C removals and considering GHGs in CO2-equivalent (eq.), the perennial legume phase was a net sink of 5440 kg CO2-eq. ha-1 and the annual rotation was a net source of 4500 kg CO2-eq. ha-1 for the two year study period. Information gathered will help bridge missing data gaps in national emission trends and enhance development of Canadian GHG mitigation models.