yes / This briefing paper reports on research exploring ten detailed case studies of livelihoods-oriented interventions operating in Tanzania, South Africa, Uganda and Lesotho. As a proxy for best practice, these interventions were analysed through an audit of sustainable livelihood `principles¿. This revealed general lessons about both the practical opportunities and challenges for employing sustainable livelihoods approaches to the design, implementation, monitoring and evaluation of development interventions and also about the changing format of development interventions. / Department for International Development.

Yes / This paper is one in a series of working papers prepared under a research project on Goodbye to Projects? The Institutional Impacts of a Livelihood Approach on Projects and Project Cycle Management. This is a collaborative project between the Bradford Centre for International Centre for Development (BCID) with the Economic and Policy Research Centre (EPRC), Uganda; Khanya ¿ managing rural change, South Africa; and, the Institute for Development Management (IDM), Tanzania. The project is supported by the UK Department for International Development (DFID) under their Economic and Social Research Programme (ESCOR). / Department for International Development

Approaches to projects and development have undergone considerable change in the last decade with significant policy shifts on governance, gender, poverty eradication, and environmental issues. Most recently this has led to the adoption and promotion of the sustainable livelihood (SL) approach. The adoption of the SL approach presents challenges to development interventions including: the future of projects and programmes, and sector wide approaches (SWAPs) and direct budgetary support. This paper `An Appraisal of the use of livelihoods approaches in South Africa¿ is the second in the series of project working papers. This is the output of a literature review and series of interviews on sustainable livelihood approaches, projects, programmes and sector wide approaches in South Africa. / Department for International Development

The fundamental objective of this study was to determine the impact of PLAS Land Reform Projects on the livelihood (financial, human, physical, natural and social capitals) of beneficiaries. The population of the study included all beneficiaries (97) of PLAS projects within Dr. Kenneth Kaunda District Municipality. Fifty four beneficiaries were randomly selected from all 36 projects and interviewed using a structured questionnaire. Data collected was sorted, coded and analysed using version 21 of the Statistical Package for Social Sciences (SPSS). Frequency count and percentage were used to summarize the data. The identified major constraints affecting PLAS projects were found to be: lack of resources (77.9%), lack of finance (77.8%), lack of water (77.8%), lack of incentives (66.7%), lack/poor infrastructure (64.8%) and high inputs cost (59.3%). The respondents indicated that lack of finance was caused by both lack of government support and inability to access credit from financial institutions, Jack of assets and land ownership which could be used as security to secure loans. Binary Logit Regression Model was used to determine factors influencing the impact of PLAS projects on the livelihood of beneficiaries. Five explanatory variables found to be statistically significant were: size of projects (Z=1-.905: P<0.05), purchase price of projects (Z=-2.258: P>0.01), sufficient funding (Z=1.657: P<0.01), established market (Z=2.552: P<0.01) and age of farmers' (Z=-2.697: P>0.05). Wilcoxon Sign-rank Sum Test was used to determine the "before" and "after" impact of PLAS Land Redistribution projects on the livelihood (financial, human, physical, natural and social capitals) of beneficiaries. The findings showed that significant difference existed on the livelihood (social, financial, physical, natural and human capital) before and after participating in PLAS projects. The result indicated an inverse relationship in terms of the impact of PLAS projects on the livelihood of beneficiaries implying that discontinuation or no participation in PLAS projects could reduce livelihood capitals or negatively affect beneficiaries' livelihood. / Thesis (M.Sc.(Agric Economics) North-West University, Mafikeng Campus, 2013

This research investigated the techno-economic feasibility of increasing hours of electricity services on Likoma Island in Malawi; making use of solar photovoltaic and wind power in order to enhance sustainable livelihood. Likoma Island grid is operated independent of the mainland grid; and the island is supplied electricity by diesel generators which are scheduled for only 14 hours per day. The limited hours of electricity supply constrains the delivery of essential services and hinders people from achieving sustainable livelihoods. The research used empirical and modelled data of solar irradiance and hub height wind speed, photovoltaic and wind energy systems costs, diesel-generator operation costs, energy needs, energy use patterns, electricity demand profile, and prevailing socioeconomic conditions. Diesel, photovoltaic, and wind based energy systems feeding the Island s grid; and autonomous photovoltaic and wind energy systems for selected essential institutions were modelled and simulated using the Hybrid Optimization Model for Electric Renewables. Energy system solutions are proposed indicating cost factors and opportunities for the enhancement of sustainable livelihoods. The thesis argues that with the financial resources committed to the prevailing 14-hours supply of electricity by diesel generators, it is feasible to provide Likoma Island with electricity for 24 hours every day by photovoltaic and wind based energy systems. A deployment model which uses excess energy from the modelled photovoltaic and wind power systems to serve non-grid loads and livelihood activities which are difficult to account for when sizing embedded renewable energy systems has been developed. The findings provide cost projections of photovoltaic and wind energy systems relative to diesel generators upon which investment and policy decisions can be made. Microscale wind maps at 10 m, 25 m, 40 m and 50 m have been developed for identification of potential wind turbine sites. Empirical socioeconomic data which are essential for the design of delivery mechanisms for renewable energy systems have been generated. The deployment model proposed by the research gives new insights into holistic ways of enhancing sustainable energy access in low-income communities. The interdisciplinary insights provided by this thesis can be applied in other countries and communities with similar socioeconomic contexts to Likoma Island.

Philosophiae Doctor - PhD / Springs are an important natural resource in many rural spaces which, if utilised sustainably, can be an important source of livelihoods for rural communities. In Zimbabwe, the social aspects of springs and their waterscapes remain understudied. This includes an in-depth understanding of how communities have shaped their livelihoods around springs, the extent to which they have contributed to sustainable rural livelihoods, especially in water stressed parts of the country and the institutional framework shaping their access and utilisation. Using the sustainable livelihoods framework of analysis, the goal of this study was to investigate the role that springs and their resultant waterscapes have played in securing livelihoods for rural households in the Save Catchment of Zimbabwe. Methodologically, the research adopted the socio-hydrological approach which is a new and emerging discipline that aims at understanding the interactions and feedbacks between the human and natural processes that give rise to community water sustainability challenges. The socio-hydrological approach is informed by both the qualitative and quantitative research techniques of data collection and analysis. Two rural communities (Nyanyadzi and Maturure) of the Save Catchment were randomly selected for an in-depth study. The snowball sampling technique (non-probability) was utilised in the selection of the 100 participants for the questionnaire survey. Purposive sampling was used to select nine key informant interview participants. Secondary data collection was done through a systematic review of scholarly and policy literature. Qualitative data generated from primary and secondary sources were processed and analysed using qualitative techniques such as thematic ordering, systematisation and fine grain analysis. For quantitative data, descriptive statistics, such as frequencies, were used to summarise and analyse questionnaire data. Rural communities in the Save Catchment of Zimbabwe were observed to have developed livelihood strategies that were anchored on springs and their waterscapes. In the studied communities, springs were utilised for both commercial and subsistence purposes and livelihoods constructed around springs included; gardening, tourism, livestock production, brick kilning art and craft making. In the study, springs were also shown to be a very important component of sustainable rural livelihoods. However, most of them were perceived to be declining in both water quality and quantity, imposing complex livelihood conundrums for the rural communities and threatening the sustainability of livelihood strategies that they are supporting. Practices observed to be threatening the integrity of springs were encroachment of settlements, natural environmental changes, soil erosion and population pressure. Limited environmental awareness, poverty, poor implementation and enforcement of conservation laws has resulted in the adoption of practices that degraded springs. Institutions shaping spring utilisation were observed to be ineffective to a large extent due to lack of capacities and conflicting mandates but local traditional leadership and water committees were observed to have deeper community penetration and were the most effective in influencing access and effective management of springs and their related waterscapes.

Neste trabalho procura-se desenvolver reflexões acerca das mudanças nos modos de vida que os seringueiros de Xapuri/AC vêm experimentando desde o assassinato de Chico Mendes, em 1988. Neste sentido, as atenções e energias do estudo foram concentradas na tentativa de perceber, principalmente a partir de relatos coletados com moradores do Projeto de Assentamento Agroextrativista Cachoeira e Reserva Extrativista Chico Mendes, os novos temores, as novas experiências e os novos desafios, entre outras histórias experimentadas pelos seringueiros residentes nos locais pesquisados. Para isso, procurou-se estabelecer um diálogo com as experiências desses sujeitos sociais, objetivando traduzir, por meio de relatos colhidos, in loco, as vozes, os rostos e as vivências humanas na cena do estudo. A História Oral foi a estratégia metodológica principal utilizada para a obtenção das fontes. Entretanto, também fontes escritas foram utilizadas. A análise e o diálogo com as fontes apontam que as principais modificações no viver dos sujeitos pesquisados aconteceram, principalmente, após a chegada ao poder estadual de um grupo político denominado Frente Popular do Acre. Esse Governo, que se autodenominou Governo da Floresta, realizou investimentos patrocinados por organizações internacionais que trouxeram mudanças significativas no modus vivendi das pessoas do interior das matas xapurienses. Essas mudanças melhoraram a vida dos sujeitos, mas também trouxeram problemas, riscos e prejuízos. A possibilidade do desaparecimento dos seringueiros, deixando o território limpo para outras explorações, constituiu-se em uma das importantes questões que a pesquisa evidenciou e suscita no meio social da floresta xapuriense / This work seeks to develop reflections on the changes in the lifestyles the rubber tappers from Xapuri/AC have been experiencing since the murder of Chico Mendes, in 1988. In this sense, the attention and the energy of the study were concentrated on trying to perceive, mainly from the reports of the dwellers of the Cachoeira Extractive Settlement Project and the Chico Mendes Extractive Reserve, the new fears, the new experiences and the new challenges, among other stories the rubber tappers residing in the surveyed areas have gone through. For this purpose, a dialogue was established with the experiences of those social subjects, aiming to translate, through the reports collected, in loco, the voices, the faces and the living experiences in the scene of the study. The Oral History was the main methodological estrategy used to obtain the sources. However, written sources were also used. The analysis and the dialogue with the sources indicate that the major changes in the living of the studied subjects happened, primarily, after a political group called Popular Front of Acre came to power state. That Governance, which called itself Government of the Forest, sponsored investments held by international organizations which brought significant changes to the modus vivendi of the people from the interior of Xapuris forest. Those changes have improved the life of the subjects, but they also brought problems, risks and damages. The possibility of disappearance of the rubber tappers, leaving the territory clean for other holdings, constituted itself into one of the important questions that the survey evidenced and raises in the social environment of Xapuris forest

Carbon forestry projects have proliferated over last few years on the premise of cost efficient climate mitigation along with co-benefits of biodiversity conservation and livelihood improvement. Multilateral, bilateral, public and private sources have invested billions of dollars in the carbon forestry projects based on these claims. However, there is little empirical evidence to support the enthusiasm. This gap is further accentuated by the insufficient understanding of the governance challenges of these projects. These issues are social, political and ecological in nature and hence require a multidisciplinary political ecology framework for a comprehensive analysis. This thesis explores the multiple benefit claims and governance issues by analysing two forestry-based Clean Development Mechanism projects from India. One, in Haryana state focuses on private lands, the other in Himachal involves three different types of lands viz. community, public and private for plantation activities. This thesis examines the carbon, biodiversity and livelihood benefits of each project, and the governance challenges associated with them. I show that both projects have sequestered substantially less carbon than was originally predicted, which has serious implications for carbon revenues and hence economic viability of these projects. In the case of biodiversity, the results are mixed. In Haryana, the tree and herb biodiversity has improved in the project plots as compared to control plots, whereas shrub biodiversity has marginally declined. In case of Himachal project, biodiversity has declined at tree, shrub and herb levels. I have analysed livelihood impacts in terms of foregone crop, fodder and fuel wood benefits across small, medium and large category of farmers. Both the projects have adverse livelihood impacts on the participants, more so in Haryana because of the plantations on private lands. Although the project has adversely affected the livelihoods of all three categories of farmers, however it has affected small farmers the most due to their low incomes and risk-bearing capacities. Hence, these projects have serious equity implications. This thesis also explores the governance challenges of carbon forestry in terms of their interaction with existing policy mechanisms, especially the Forest Rights Act of 2006, which recognises the ownership and use rights of forest dependent communities comprehensively first time in independent India. The analysis suggests that there are various issues that carbon forestry projects pose for the implementation of the Act due to which civil society groups are opposing these projects. This thesis contributes to our understanding of the multiple benefit claims of carbon forestry projects with empirical evidence and a political ecological analysis. It shows that there is possibility of tradeoffs and many other scenarios in carbon forestry projects rather than just the projected 'win-win-win' outcomes. It contributes to the political economy literature by establishing that changes in global commodity markets can influence land use choices at local level, affecting the sustainability of such efforts. This thesis also advances the literature on governance of carbon forestry projects by reflecting on various policy and implementation level issues related to property rights, community institutions, transparency and accountability.

Magister Artium (Development Studies) - MA(DVS) / Urban food insecurity in Zimbabwe is a serious stumbling block to the attainment of sustainable urban livelihoods. The casual factors of the urban food crisis in the country include widespread poverty, an unstable economic environment, a reduction of viable employment opportunities and climate-related shocks. The cash-based nature of urban livelihoods, coupled with the economic crisis in Zimbabwe has generated a serious challenge for urban households as basic food prices have increased to such an extent that most urban dwellers experience difficulties in purchasing food. In a context of high poverty and unemployment, urban agriculture has emerged as a food security and livelihood diversification strategy for many poor urban households. Whilst there is a growing body of literature focusing on urban agriculture in Zimbabwe, it has largely focused on community and allotment gardens. There has, however, been little empirical investigation of home-based (or backyard) agricultural production. While backyard gardens have always existed, they have grown in response to poor economic conditions and adverse livelihood conditions. The Bulawayo Municipal Council Agriculture Policy has facilitated this expansion, especially the growth of poultry production. This study addresses this gap in the literature by investigating the contribution of home-based agricultural production in promoting household food security and livelihoods in Bulawayo. A mixed methods approach was utilised for the purposes of the study. In the quantitative part of the study, 99 households were randomly sampled whilst 10 purposively sampled interviews with urban farmers, 3 key informant interviews and 1 focus group discussion were employed for the qualitative part of the study. The Sustainable Livelihoods Framework, which was used as a theoretical framework of the study, helped to unpack the various livelihood diversification strategies and asset portfolios that poor people depend on for their well-being. Contrary to our initial assumption, the results of the study revealed that 71 percent of the households in the study area were food secure. The findings of the study reveal that home-based urban agriculture is an important food security coping strategy in Bulawayo. The high levels of food security in Bulawayo should however, not be solely attributed to the practice of urban agriculture as 75 percent of the respondents bought their food from supermarkets and other shops. Urban agriculture thus plays a complimentary role to household food security in Bulawayo.

Agriculturalists in Lebanon are exposed to a wide range of vulnerability factors that have direct impacts on farmers’ livelihoods. To evaluate the effects of those factors and the livelihood challenges they breed, this research analyses how two agricultural activities shape farmer livelihood vulnerability, namely urban agriculture and fruit and vegetable value chains. First, I analyze how vulnerability factors influence urban agriculturalist livelihoods and assess if urban agriculture is an adequate solution to lower their livelihood vulnerability. Second, I analyse how various actors partaking in fruit and vegetable value chains are exposed to different vulnerability factors and how this impacts their individual livelihoods. Conceptually, the urban agriculture component of this research builds from the vulnerability framework and sustainable livelihoods approaches scholarships. The agricultural value chain section engages with literatures centered on the vulnerability framework, sustainable livelihoods approaches and value chain analysis. This thesis concludes that the main vulnerability factors associated with urban agriculture relate to physical, financial and human capitals, and that urban agriculture is not an adequate tool to reduce the livelihood vulnerability of urban agriculturalists. I also conclude that social, financial and human capital barriers significantly affect agricultural value chains actors’ livelihoods. Overall, the vulnerability of the different actors is linked to their socioeconomic status, which dictates the amount of human capital they possess, thus their ability to adapt to changing conditions and external stressors. I posit that human capital is key to both urban agriculture and agricultural value chains, as this asset dictates the vulnerability of individual livelihoods and Lebanese agriculturalists’ ability to sustain their livelihoods.