Long calls are highly stereotyped calls used by primates to communicate across distances; the function of these calls has been debated. Goustard (1983:405) defines them as " ... an extended utterance which has a high degree of structural organization." Habitat structure has been considered a shaping force of the acoustic structure of nonhuman primate long calls as part of the local adaptation hypothesis (Brown et al. 1995). This study examines the effect of phylogeny, habitat density, diet, and social and mating systems as seen through the structure of the fundamental frequency (the lowest frequency of the call; Rogers 2000; Ey, Pfefferle, and Fischer 2007). Results of ANOVA and post hoc tests indicate there are both phylogenetic and habitat-related influences in the acoustic structure of the first phrase (first part of the long call separated from the next by a discrete break). Dietary preferences and social and mating systems are also correlated with acoustic structure.

Medical residency is characterized by sleep deprivation, stress, and heavy workload. The impact of these pressures on physician-patient communication has not been fully explored. The aim of the current study was to investigate how contextual demands, stress, and burnout impact empathy and provision of patient-centered communication among internal medicine residents in two hospitals. The long-call shift was studied, as it is known to be particularly taxing and is a primary feature of medical residency. Assessments were obtained both prior to and at the conclusion of residents' shifts. Cognitive complexity was examined as a potential mediator of the relationship between stress and burnout, and burnout and empathy. Results revealed that there was a significant decline in physician empathy from the beginning to the end of the long-call shift and that this decline in empathy predicted less patient-centered communication from physicians. Stress, burnout, and decline in empathy were all positively associated, indicating that resident physicians who were more stressed and burned out were at increased risk for declines in empathy over the course of their shift. Cognitive complexity was not found to be a significant mediator of any associations between study variables, though it was associated with several key variables in unexpected ways. These findings highlight the importance of identifying and addressing barriers to patient-centered communication, as a number of these barriers may be routinely present in the demanding environment of medical residency.