Previous research has indicated the unique contribution that the interaction between looked after children and their foster carers might have on young people’s behaviour, emotional well-being and subsequent placement stability. Furthermore, there may be differences in the way in which young people and their foster carers view a typical family. Despite this, there is a noticeable absence of studies which have specifically explored the foster carer-child relationship, particularly in terms of how their individual perspectives might be negotiated within their interpersonal relationship. The current study therefore aimed to address this gap. Three foster carer-child dyads were recruited from a local Child and Adolescent Mental Health Service, with young people aged between 8 and 16 years. A Personal Construct Psychology (PCP) approach was adopted. Participants each completed an individual interview, facilitated by Perceiver Element Grids (PEGs; Procter, 2002) in which interpersonal construing was explored. Looked after children and their foster carers were then interviewed together to share and discuss their completed PEGs. Interview transcripts were analysed using Thematic Analysis and PCP concepts were used to analyse the interactional processes between young people and their carers. The study highlighted a shared sense of fragmentation across participants’ accounts, with both looked after children and their carers reporting a sense of inauthenticity in the way they negotiated their interpersonal relationships. Differences in the way in which ‘family’ was perceived was also highlighted, with young people expressing a sense of ambivalence regarding their desire to be integrated into their foster family, whilst also retaining a connection to their birth family. These themes were supported in their interactions and co-constructional processes. The findings are discussed in relation to the relevant literature and clinical implications. Methodological limitations and directions for future research are also presented.

This research explores home supervision requirements (HSRs) in Scotland; as well as the views about, and experiences of those who are affected the most by this type of compulsory intervention – young people, their parents and social workers. Home supervision requirements are a type of legal supervision order at home which is unique to the Scottish system of child legislation. Despite being the most common type of disposal used by the Children’s Hearing little is known about how HSRs work in practice. There is some evidence that young people who are subject to a HSR are likely to leave school with fewer qualifications than their peers – including young people who were ‘looked after’ away from home. Concerns with this gap in our understandings, combined with concerns for the poorer educational outcomes of young people who are subject to a HSR, has lead the Scottish Government, in collaboration with the Economic and Social Research Council (ESRC), to set up and fund this case studentship. The research was conducted in a relatively large urban local authority in Scotland and used a multi-method approach in order to find out more about the nature, scope and outcomes of HSRs; as well as young people’s, their parents’ and social workers’ views about, and experiences of HSRs. I have conducted secondary analysis of data obtained from the Scottish Children’s Reporter Administration (SCRA). SCRA provided aggregated data on all 98 young people who were subject to a HSR in Thistle city for 12 months or more at 31st of December 2008. This information provided a ‘profile’ of young people subject to a HSR as well as a charter of their involvement with the Hearing System. This highlights the similarities between young people who are subject to a HSR and those who are subject to other types of supervision requirements (SRs) in Scotland. I also carried out documentary analysis of young people’s social work case files. Social work case files contain a number of different documents which provide qualitative information in narrative form about young people and their families, as well as a history of contact with social services. What gets recorded, how and to what effect is the result of the same system that they describe and influence. Case files are therefore of interest not because of what they record but how they construct subjects and facilitate the management of individuals and populations – in this case young people and their parents. Finally, semi-structured in-depth interviews were conducted with 10 young people, nine parents, one carer and 10 social workers. All of the young people interviewed had been known to social services for a considerable length of time, with some having been on and off different types of supervision requirements for five years or more. The interviews revealed a great deal of ambivalence towards HSRs from all stakeholders, and a lack of clarity about the nature and scope of the intervention. Drawing on post-theories critique on the rationalist, reductionist assumptions of modern discourses that dominate social policy and practice this study concludes that rather than asking whether HSRs are successful or not, we should first consider what HSRs are for. I propose that HSR is a disciplinary technique which aims to facilitate the management of individuals and populations. Social control should not however be understood as exclusive of disciplinary powers but as an inevitable and irreducible characteristic of all social relations. It is important therefore to explore how practice exercises control; how this is contested, resisted and transformed; and to what effect.

Study One: Study one aimed to understand the perceptions and attributions of LAC fixed term excluded (FTE) from school on multiple occasions. This was carried out with reference to resilience, and an understanding of the possible protective and risk factors were also sought. Concepts of resilience (Prince-Embury, 2008; Gilligan, 2009) and attribution theory (Heider, 1958) provided a broad theoretical framework for the research. Methods: The study followed a mixed method design (carried out simultaneously). One aspect involved semi-structured interviews being undertaken using interpretive phenomenological analysis (IPA) (Smith & Osborn, 2007; 2008) in attempting to generate understanding of the thoughts and feelings of LAC going through the process of being FTE. The second aspect involved the resilience of the LAC being psychometrically measured using the Resilience Scales for Children and Adolescents (RSCA) as a way of validating and contextualising data deriving from the interviews. Results: Teachers acting as confidants and providing emotional containment appeared to significantly enhance resilience. Opportunities for dialogue and a focus on aspects to be developed in a supportive and positive manner was also important. The majority of the LAC had an external locus of control, appearing to serve them adaptively, allowing them to alleviate negative emotions relating to their behaviour. FTEs generally were causally attributed as stable and global, appearing to derive from entrenched thoughts, feelings and behaviours. The process of FTE appeared to compromise aspects of resilience as well as little positive effect being found in terms of learning and development. Study Two: Study two aimed to understand how teachers perceived the LAC participating in study one, and providing comparison with perceptions of the LAC of aspects such as FTEs. The study also sought to provide an understanding as to the causal attributions made by teachers related to LAC. Specifically, how these attributions affected their thoughts, feelings (Weiner, 1985) and practice relating to LAC. Methods: The study followed a mixed method design (carried out sequentially). A survey (SDQ) was used to provide the sample of teachers. Semi-structured interviews were carried out with eight teachers, using IPA as the method of analysis. The Modified Attribution Questionnaire with integrated vignettes was also undertaken by teachers to elicit more stable attributions relating to LAC. Results: Data deriving from interviews found support for Weiner’s (1985) cognitive-emotional-action model. Attributions of high controllability and locus increased teachers’ feelings of anger and frustration relating to the causes of the LAC’s behaviour. Empathy towards the LAC was affected by; collaboration with colleagues and professionals, understanding the needs of the child, ethos of the school, a child centred approach and the LAC’s behaviour deriving from their care background. Further key findings are discussed from a theoretical perspective with implications for practice proposed.

The education of looked-after children (LAC) in the care of the Local Authority (LA) is supported by government initiatives to reduce the attainment gap that exists between LAC and their peers. Long-term outcomes for LAC pupils are poor (Sebba et al. 2015). The Virtual School (VS) has a statutory role in the education of LAC (DfE, 2014a) and aims to encourage stringent monitoring and intervention for LAC pupils, for example via a personalised education plan (PEP) outlining attainment, strategies intended to accelerate progress, and resources needed for doing so. The PEP process involves termly meetings between pupil, Social Worker and school's designated teacher. The current study uses Actor-Network Theory (ANT) (Latour, 1999) as a lens through which to conceptualise change for LAC pupils during the PEP process. Data was collected from three PEP meetings and accompanying documentation in one LA setting, using ethnomethodology, in order to explore the human and non-human actors in the PEP network which are active in creating change for LAC. The analysis made visible the strong role of the PEP document in providing structure for the meeting, along with the instrumental role of the designated teacher and their knowledge of the pupil embodied in non-human entities such as resources, timetabling and grades. The Social Worker influence on the network was less visible. ANT is explored as a material semiotic tool for analysis through a conceptual review of current literature within educational research, with a focus on the construction of research questions. The review demonstrates that ANT can attempt to answer questions about 'how' things came to be and 'who' and 'what' they are composed of. The current research also incorporates an appraisal of evidence-based practice, and a consideration of the implications and dissemination of the findings of the study at LA level and beyond.

Existing research has shown that care leavers are one of the most disadvantaged groups in society and are at particular risk of experiencing negative long-term outcomes including unemployment, homelessness and mental health problems. This thesis makes a contribution to knowledge in this area by focusing upon a group of care leavers about whom very little is currently known: care leavers in higher education. These are young people who despite the odds, have succeeded educationally and are overcoming their early disadvantage to make a successful transition from care into adulthood. This thesis uses Bourdieu's theory on transformation and reproduction in society and the concepts of capital, field and habitus to explore care leavers' experiences of higher education. It considers how the support available to care leavers from their local authorities and higher education institutions has developed since Jackson and colleagues (2005) Going to University from Care study first highlighted deficits in the level of support provided to care leavers. This thesis also compares the experiences of care leavers with students from other disadvantaged backgrounds to understand where care leavers have specific support needs as a result of not being supported at university by their birth parents. Finally, this thesis considers the impact of the Buttle UK Quality Mark, developed in response to the findings of Jackson and colleagues (2005) and awarded to universities demonstrating a commitment to supporting care leavers.

The academic underachievement of looked after children is well known. By involving foster carers in a Paired Reading intervention a Swedish project tried to address this issue, replicating a successful British trial. The aim of my thesis was to study the variations in the foster carers’ experiences of this literacy intervention. Reading reports from 100 children were collected and qualitative interviews with 15 foster parents were analyzed using concepts from motivational psychology. The results revealed that although some had reported difficulties a majority of the participants had implemented the program in an acceptable way. Many carers had noticed improvements in the child’s reading ability and some reported improved relations, but in a few cases rigidly following the method had led to conflicts. The interviews showed that the completion of the literacy training was conditioned on the children’s pleasure/joy in reading which in turn may require adjustments in the day-to-day delivery of the intervention. Also carers had to see a purpose with Paired Reading in order to be able to arouse enthusiasm in the child. The results suggest that it is possible to engage foster parents in the improvement of foster children’s literacy skills.

Background: Since the 1980’s incidents of workplace violence have been recognised as a serious problem within social care. It has been found to be particularly rife within residential settings and children’s homes in particular have been found to be one of the most violence-prone settings. And yet, there is a lack of literature on the prevalence and psychosocial impact of workplace violence on staff in residential units for looked after and accommodated children (LAAC). Method: Given the limited literature on residential childcare workers a systematic review was conducted on research of violence towards social workers in child and family services to achieve a better understand of violence within child and family social care generally. An empirical study was also conducted with staff of Local Authority residential units within Central Scotland. The aim of the empirical study was to explore staffs’ experience of workplace violence perpetrated by LAAC in residential settings, using the qualitative methodology Interpretative Phenomenological Analysis (IPA). Results: The systematic review showed that studies were mostly of medium methodological quality; verbal aggression towards social workers in child and family services was common place; physical violence was comparatively rare; and that all forms of violence impacted on wellbeing and practice. The empirical study had similar findings, but also provided new insights into how staff cope with workplace violence, particularly in the context of young peoples’ life experiences. Conclusion: Violence perpetrated by LAAC in residential units appeared to be lessening and a move towards more behaviour management was aiding staff to better understand the roots of violence. This in turn was found to help staff cope better with the emotional impact of violence. Management need to be mindful of the impact violence has on staff and continue providing training programs to better equip staff to understand violence and support LAAC to manage their aggression.

It has long been recognised that cared for children can be at a disadvantage in terms of their educational experiences and outcomes (Comfort, 2007). The Care Matters Green Paper (DfES, 2006) suggested that although educational outcomes for cared for children had improved, there was still a gap between the outcomes for cared for children and those of the wider school population. A number of suggestions to narrow this gap were proposed, including the introduction of a virtual school head who would be responsible for driving up the performance of schools in relation to cared for children (DfES, 2006). In 2009 the role of the designated teacher of cared for children became statutory (DCSF, 2009a) with the aim of promoting the educational achievement of cared for children.This thesis aimed to explore the current and future role of the virtual school for cared for children in one local authority, using a mixed methods research design. The current role was established through semi-structured interviews with members of the virtual school team and surveying designated teachers using a questionnaire. The future role was explored through an appreciative inquiry session involving three members of the virtual school and one designated teacher. Appreciative inquiry seeks out what is already working in an organisation and builds on this success (Carter, 2006). There are limited examples of the use of appreciative inquiry in educational research regarding vulnerable groups (Woollam, 2010a; Woollam, 2010b), particularly within a mixed methods approach.Data was analysed using descriptive statistics and thematic analysis. The majority of designated teachers suggested that they were confident in their role. Existing support from the virtual school included individual casework, funding, training, support during placement breakdowns and emotional support for the designated teacher. Additional support was requested for post-16 cared for children and adopted children. Virtual school staff reported increased funding, the virtual school head position and virtual school branding, the raised profile of cared for children and relationships as facilitative to their work. Barriers included cared for children’s experiences, staff knowledge and experience and low expectations for cared for children. It was perceived the virtual school model was “working”; advantages over previous models included “sitting” in education, access to senior meetings to raise the profile of cared for children’s needs and being a “bridge” between social care and education. Priorities for the future role of this virtual school included “being bold”, developing early years and post-16 provision, increased enrichment opportunities and widening the remit of the virtual school to include other vulnerable groups such as adopted children, child protection cases and children in need. Implications for educational psychology practice and future research are considered.

Social support is strongly associated with resilience and positive outcomes in children who have experienced risk and adversity, including children and young people in care. However, research suggests that children in care are often disadvantaged in their ability to benefit from social support due to disrupted relationships and multiple placements. Whilst a number of measures have been developed to assess the support networks of children, few are able to adequately assess and describe the complex network of relationships that exist for young people in care.The aim of this exploratory study was to investigate the use of a Dependency Grid to assess social support in young people who are looked after. The Dependency Grid is an interview technique derived from George Kelly’s (1955) Theory of Personal Constructs and was administered to ten individuals aged 11-17 years who were either in foster care or residential care. Qualitative and quantitative methods of data analysis were used to explore its utility to assess social support with each case. The appropriateness and ease of completing the Dependency Grid was evaluated through participant feedback interviews. The views and opinions of the young people’s social workers and a reference group consisting of social care practitioners were also obtained.The Dependency Grid was found to be a useful tool for examining the support networks of young people in care, with many advantages over existing measures. The Dependency Grid revealed similarities and differences in the way participants distributed their dependencies. Most of the participants had dispersed dependency grids and carers and friends were the most significant providers of support. Levels of social support did not vary with the increasing size of the support network (r = 0.198) and the felt ‘closeness’ of relationships, as measured using the Four Field Map, was poorly related to the allocation of dependencies (r = -0.243). Some evidence was found in relation to the validity of the Dependency Grid for individual cases using qualitative methods. The strengths and limitations of the Dependency Grid are discussed and the methodological challenges with the study and opportunities for further research are considered.

The aim of this thesis was to explore the key care factors that influence the educational achievement of children looked after at home and away from home in Scotland. Traditionally there has been less research conducted in Scotland than in the rest of the United Kingdom. The research analysed a large new sample - one fifth of the care leaving population in Scotland - and spans a five year period. The thesis makes an original research contribution. A unique features of the research is that it investigates the experiences of children looked after at home, alongside those looked after away from home. In addition, the research involved two large local authority areas in Scotland that had not previously participated in such research on looked after children. What emerged from the research was that the Corporate Parent (local authorities and partner agencies) had not yet successfully prioritised the educational achievement of looked after children in policy and practice, despite education being identified by the government as a mechanism for combating social exclusion. The key findings of the research demonstrated that looked after children perform less well academically than the general school population. In particular, placement type, the reason for becoming looked after and the age on becoming looked after were significant factors in determining educational achievement. Other factors such as gender and number of placements were also found to be associated with educational achievement. Empirical results further indicated that looked after children suffered from discrimination and social exclusion in all aspects of their lives, including school and where they lived. This was a significant finding as the disadvantage experienced by many looked after children continues to impact on their lives into adulthood, making them some of the most socially excluded adults in Scotland and the United Kingdom today.