Transposable elements (TEs) are acknowledged sources of genetic change within organisms. The effects of transposition can range from the disruption or creation of a single gene to large-scale genome rearrangements. Transposition events can result in beneficial mutations which allow an organism to adapt to a new environment. In the last three years, several studies have reported that some miRNAs, small RNAs involved in post-transcriptional gene regulation, have evolved from TEs. miRNAs play an important role in the stress responses of many organisms. Interestingly, TEs are derepressed under the same stress conditions that miRNAs are known to ameliorate. The observation that miRNAs are known to evolve from TEs and that TEs are derepressed under stress conditions lead me to question whether TEs play a role in environmental adaptation through the creation of small RNA networks. To test this idea, Chlamydomonas reinhardtii cultures were grown under low carbon, nitrate enriched conditions and the small RNA pool was analyzed. I found that these conditions do stimulate the expression of novel small RNAs and that some of these RNAs and their targets are derived from transposition events.

As part of the European Union’s climate commitment including the adoption of the Paris agreement, the European commission has developed a long-term strategy with the goal to reach net zero CO2emissions in 2050. To achieve this, a transformation of the European industry is necessary, as it represents 30% of EU’s total emissions. A major challenge will be to cut emissions in the CO2intensive steel industry, which is considered hard to abate. To reach the Paris agreement, deep emission cuts are necessary to occur within a decade, before cumulative emissions are too high. Today, about 60% of all steel in the EU is produced using coke as feedstock, a process resulting in large CO2 emissions. A new process in which hydrogen is used instead of coke is under development, with no direct CO2 emissions as result. The implementation of such technologies can help shift the production from fossil based to renewable, with declining emissions as a result. Until now, most abatement methods are focused on the supply side, finding technical solutions that can reduce emissions. This study shows that technology can play an important role in the transformation of the steel industry but will not alone achieve the necessary reductions fast enough. To achieve near-zero emissions in the steel industry, the solution set needs to widen to include demand side measures. The results show that circular economy principles that promote higher shares of recycled steel and reduced losses have the potential to lower total demand. This also applies for circular business models, by which incentives for higher utilisation and lifetimes of products can be created. In this report, demand-side measures are analysed using a stock-based steel demand model. It is estimated that demand-side measures can decrease the steel demand by 27% in 2050, compared to a business as usual scenario. Applying circular principles would also increase the share of recycled steel being produced from old steel scrap, a process far less CO2 intensive than virgin production. The findings are, that demand side measures can provide immediate deep emission cuts necessary, saving time before new technologies are implemented. The lower steel demand also helps making the transition from fossil to fossil-free steel production easier. By a combination of demand side reductions and hydrogen-DR the steel industry in Europe can reach near-zero emissions by 2050.

Il est communément admis que les géopolymères sont des solutions potentielles comme alternative aux liants hydrauliques classiques. Les géopolymères sont produits à partir de réactifs non carbonés contrairement au ciment portland et nécessitent relativement peu d'énergie pour être élaborés. Ce sont des liants inorganiques issus de l'activation alcaline d'aluminosilicates. Afin de faire des géopolymères une alternative viable et industriellement intéressante, plusieurs verrous technologiques doivent être levés en particulier sur leur mise en œuvre et les mécanismes chimiques impliqués au très jeune âge. Les études précédentes sur les mécanismes de cette réaction de géopolymérisation montrent l'existence d'un mécanisme en trois phases (dissolution – réorganisation – polymérisation). Notre étude s'est portée sur les mécanismes impliqués dans le comportement à l'état frais et en prise de géopolymère modèle à base de métakaolin. Pour cela, nous avons développé une approche combinée entre les mesures rhéologiques et chimiques (RMN liquide) afin de répondre à la complexité de l'hétérogénéité chimique locale pendant la géopolymérisation. Dans les deux premières parties de la thèse, nous nous sommes intéressés à comprendre le développement des propriétés mécaniques du gâchage à la prise du géopolymère. Lors de mesures de suivi de module élastique au cours du temps, nous observons également trois phases, une première augmentation de module dès les premières centaines de secondes, un plateau caractéristique d'une période de latence puis une seconde augmentation de module après plusieurs heures. Dans un premier temps, nous sommes intéressés à la première augmentation de module. Il a été établi que l'origine de ce module était la formation d'un premier gel de rapport Si/Al < à 4.5 localisé au niveau des joints de grains de métakaolin. Dans un second temps, nous sommes focalisé sur la dernière augmentation de module dont l'origine est la formation d'un second gel dont la composition chimique est celle du produit final c'est-à-dire le géopolymère de rapport Si/Al ~2.Finalement, dans une troisième partie, nous avons mis évidence les principales différences qui existent entre les géopolymères et de ciment Portland d'un point de vue rhéologique. Ces matériaux se comportent comme des fluides newtoniens. Les interactions entre les particules sont dominées par les effets hydrodynamiques, qui sont principalement contrôlés par la viscosité élevée de la solution alcaline de silicate et non par la contribution des contacts directs entre les grains de métakaolin / It is commonly accepted that the geopolymers are potential solutions as an alternative to conventional hydraulic binders. Geopolymers are produced from no-carbon reactants unlike Portland cement and require relatively little energy to be developed. These are inorganic binders from the alkali activation of aluminosilicates. To make a geopolymer as viable alternative and industrially interesting, several technological hurdles must be overcome in particular, their casting and the chemical mechanisms involved at very early age. Previous studies on the mechanisms of this reaction of geopolymerisation show the existence of a three phase's mechanism (dissolution - reorganization - polymerization). Our study focused on the mechanisms involved in fresh behavior and during setting of model metakaolin based geopolymers. For this, we have developed a combined approach between the rheological measurements and chemical measurements (liquid NMR) to respond to the complexity of the local chemical heterogeneity during geopolymerisation. In the first two parts of the thesis, we are interested in understanding the development of mechanical properties from mixing to setting of geopolymers. During the measurement of the elastic modulus' evolution, we also observe three phases, the first increase of elastic modulus during the first few hundred seconds, a plateau characteristic of a latency period followed by a second increase of elastic modulus after several hours. As a first step, we are interested in the first increase of modulus. It was established that the origin of this modulus was the formation of a first gel with a Si / Al ratio <4.5 localized at the grain boundaries of metakaolin. In a second step, we focused on the last increase of the elastic modulus. The origin is the formation of a second gel; the chemical composition is that of the final product that is to say the geopolymer with a Si / Al ratio ~ 2.Finally, in the third part, we have identified the major differences between geopolymer and Portland cement from a rheological point of view. These materials behave as Newtonian fluids. The interactions between the particles are dominated by hydrodynamic effects, which are mainly controlled by the high viscosity of the alkaline silicate solution and not the contribution of direct contacts between the grains of metakaolin

This report describes a 3 year study carried out to determine the effects of modern coal power generation technologies on the properties of fly ash and how these may affect the use of the material in concrete. A total of 18 fly ashes, from 11 different sources, produced under a range of conditions and technologies were investigated. These primarily included co-combustion, low NOx, supercritical and oxy-fuel technologies, although other available materials (run-of-station, air-classified, processed and stockpiled fly ashes) were included for comparison. The initial experimental work involved physical and chemical characterization of the fly ash samples. Thereafter, tests covering fresh properties, strength development and durability were carried out on selected concretes. A fly ash level of 30% was used with w/c ratios covering the practical range considered (0.35 to 0.65). Equal strength comparisons were also made where appropriate. Finally, granular (unbound fly ash) and monolithic (fly ash concrete) leaching tests were carried out to assess the environmental implications of using the fly ashes. The results from the physical and chemical characterization tests suggest that modern technologies used for coal fired power generation can have an influence on the properties of fly ash produced. The co-combustion, oxy-fuel and in-combustion low NOx fly ashes had reduced fineness and greater LOI, which had a negative effect on foam index and water requirement of the materials. However reactivity was largely unaffected. The post-combustion low NOx and supercritical fly ashes appeared to be unaffected by their production methods compared to that produced by conventional/establish means. Tests on fresh concrete properties showed that fly ashes with high LOI and low fineness required higher SP doses than the reference PC concrete. However, fly ashes with high fineness and low surface area were found to require a lower SP dose than the PC concrete. The concrete compressive strength tests indicate that, in general, finer fly ash concretes tended to have higher strengths than those containing coarser material. However, there did not appear to be any significant difference in performance between fly ash concretes, which suggests that, although modern technologies can have an impact on fly ash properties, if account is taken of these they should not have any significant influence on strength development. Comparison with an earlier study from the 1990s considering BS EN 450-1 fly ashes showed general agreement between the data. The durability study showed that finer, low LOI fly ashes had higher chloride resistance and at equal strength fly ash concretes performed better than those with PC. Equal strength fly ash concretes covering the modern technologies were found to have similar levels of durability for sulfate attack, abrasion and carbonation. High alkali concrete (following the BS 812-123 method) gave similar expansion levels and good resistance with respect to AAR. With air-entrainment, it was found that the fly ash concretes required high doses of AEA (relative to the PC concrete), with high LOI/BET fly ashes requiring greatest quantities. At equal strength, the fly ash concretes had poorer freeze-thaw scaling resistance than PC concrete. However, the majority of the fly ashes did manage to achieve acceptable scaling resistance according to the Swedish criteria. In general, the findings of the durability study are in agreement with the earlier study from the 1990s. Overall, no effect of production technology on the durability of concrete was observed. The leaching studies showed that, in general, in both granular and concrete form, modern fly ashes met the non-hazardous waste requirements in the WAC for all components tested except chromium. For the granular test, there were instances where elevated chromium levels were observed. Similarly, the fly ash concretes failed to meet the non-hazardous limit for chromium. However, chromium from the cement may have contributed to this, since the PC reference also failed to meet this requirement. Based on the results, there is no effect of production technology on the leaching characteristics of fly ash or concrete and the materials do not appear to pose a significant environmental risk. The practical implications of the study have been considered and overall, it has been shown that modern fly ashes behave in much the same way as traditional materials, and therefore, if these materials meet the requirements of BS EN 450-1, and their properties are taken into account in the proportioning of concrete, they should give satisfactory performance.

Aujourd'hui, les problèmes environnementaux sont plus graves que jamais. Des mesures urgentes devraient être prises dans tous les domaines de l'activité humaine, y compris la construction. L'un des principaux contributeurs à l'impact négatif de cette industrie sur l'environnement est la fabrication du ciment Portland ordinaire (OPC) nécessaire à la production de béton et d’autres matériaux cimentaire. Malgré son importance, il présente un inconvénient important: sa production est accompagnée par de grandes quantités de gaz à effet de serre. Ils représentent 5 à 8% des émissions mondiales totales de CO2. Des matériaux cimentaires plus écologiques sont maintenant nécessaires.Des réductions significatives de l’impact sur l’environnement ne peuvent être obtenues que par l’utilisation de liants de nouvelle génération dont la fabrication ne nécessite pas beaucoup de processus et de traitements supplémentaires. L'une d'elles consiste à utiliser des déchets industriels comme liants (différentes laitiers, cendres volantes, cendres de biomasse, etc.). De cette manière, il y a non seulement une réduction de l'impact de processus tels que l'extraction minière ou la calcination, mais également le recyclage des déchets (un principe de l'économie circulaire).Une possibilité consiste à utiliser du laitier de haut fourneau (GGBS) comme base pour ce ciment de nouvelle génération. En raison de sa réactivité relativement faible avec l'eau, des suppléments (également appelés activateurs) doivent être utilisés pour favoriser le processus d'hydratation. Le carbonate de sodium (Na2CO3) est l’un des activateurs les plus prometteurs et en même temps les moins étudiés. Un tel ciment alkali-activé présente des propriétés mécaniques et de durabilité élevées, ainsi qu'une empreinte CO2 très faible. Parmi les principaux problèmes qui entravent son utilisation à l'échelle industrielle, on peut mentionner une évolution de la résistance lente à jeune âge et de rhéologie médiocre.L'objectif de la présente thèse est de développer une nouvelle conception du liant à base de laitier activé par Na2CO3, qui répondrait à toutes les exigences modernes du secteur de la construction, en particulier les propriétés rhéologiques et le développement de la résistance à jeune âge. Ce liant doit toujours répondre à au moins trois critères principaux: faible impact environnemental, faibles risques de danger dans les applications sur le terrain et être économiquement compétitif à l'échelle industrielle.Dans le présent travail, l’influence de différents paramètres tels que le rapport eau/liant, la concentration de Na2CO3, la finesse du laitier et les conditions de durcissement sur les propriétés du mélange à jeune âge et à long terme a été étudiée. Sur la base des résultats du processus d’hydratation, les additifs à base de phosphonate qui permettent de contrôler efficacement la rhéologie de tels liants ont été testé avec succès. Ils permettent non seulement de contrôler le temps de prise, mais fournissent également un effet plastifiant.En ce qui concerne l’amélioration des propriétés de résistance au jeune âge, différentes méthodes ont été utilisées. L’utilisation d’un traitement thermique ou d’une augmentation de la finesse du GGBS s’est avérée efficace. L’exploration des causes d’une longue période d’induction a montré que l’accélération pouvait également être obtenue par l’ajout d’une source de calcium à cinétique de dissolution contrôlée. En conséquence, le liant est devenu plus réactif et plus robuste à certains facteurs (concentration d’activateur, rapport eau/liant, conditions de durcissement, etc.). Pour compenser l'empreinte carbone supplémentaire de la source de calcium ajoutée, le liant a été dilué avec succès par le calcaire sans aucune dégradation des propriétés à un certain pourcentage de dilution. / Today, environmental problems are more acute than ever. Urgent measures should be taken in all spheres of human activity including construction and civil engineering. One of the major contributors of negative environmental impacts from this industry is the manufacturing of ordinary Portland cement (OPC) required for concrete and other cementitious materials production. Although its importance to economical development, it has a significant drawback - its production is accompanied by the emission of large quantities of greenhouse gases. They account for 5-8% of total world CO2 emissions. More environmentally friendly cementitious materials are now required.Significant reductions of the environmental impact can be achieved only through the use of new-generation binders whose manufacture does not require a lot of additional processes and treatments. One route is through the use of industrial wastes as binders (different slags, fly ash, biomass bottom ash, etc.). In this way there is not only a reduction in the impact of processes such as mining or calcination, but also the recycling of waste materials (circular economy principle).One possibility is to use ground granulated blast furnace slag (GGBS) as the basis for such a new generation cement. Due to its rather low reactivity with water, additional supplements (also called activators) should be used to promote the hydration process. One of the most promising, and at the same time least studied, activators is sodium carbonate (Na2CO3). Such alkali-activated cements present high mechanical and durability properties, as well as a very low CO2 footprint. Among the main problems hindering its industrial scale adoption are their poor rheology and too slow strength gain within the first days of hardening.The objective of the present thesis is to develop a new binder based on Na2CO3 activated GGBS that would meet all the modern requirements of the construction industry, in particular regarding the rheological properties and early age strength development. In addition this binder should always respond to at least three main criteria: low environmental impact, low health and safety concerns in field applications, and be economically competitive at industrial scale.In the present work, the influence of different parameters like water/binder ratio, Na2CO3 concentration, slag fineness and curing conditions on both early age and long term properties of the mixture were studied. Based on the results of the hydration process analysis, phosphonate based additives that allow for the effective control of the rheology of such binders were successfully tested. They not only allow control over the setting time, but also provide a plasticizing effect.Regarding the improvement of early age strength properties, various methods have been used. The use of heat treatment or an increase of GGBS fineness turned out to be efficient. Exploring the causes of the long induction period has shown that acceleration can also be achieved by the addition of a calcium source with controlled dissolution kinetics. As a result, the binder became more reactive and robust against certain factors (activator concentration, Water/Binder ratio, curing conditions, etc.). To compensate for the additional carbon footprint from the added calcium source, the binder was successfully diluted by limestone without any degradation of the properties below some dilution percentages.