Components of host plant affiliation for two, small, blue butterflies were examined and compared. The two butterflies, Glaucopsyche lygdamus and Plebijus icariodes (Lycaenidae), are superficially quite similar but differ in host range. Oviposition preferences were determined for each butterfly species by following individual butterflies in the field and recording butterfly behavior, host plant availability and host plant characteristics. Where preferences for one host species or one plant part over another were found, potential explanations were pursued by assessing and comparing larval performance on those plant species and parts in question. Larval performances were measured in terms of survival, growth, and ant attendance in the field, and survival, growth, and pupal mass in the laboratory. All foods were also analyzed for alkaloid content, and larvae were raised on plants known to differ in alkaloid content. Individuals of both butterfly species preferred to oviposit on those host species with which they had had recent experience; nevertheless, individual butterflies of both species frequently oviposited on multiple host species during the course of a single follow bout. For G. lygdamus the availability of flower buds was critical for ovipositing adults and feeding larvae. Flower buds of any one host species were unpredictable, however, and G. lygdamus consequently utilized different host species at different times. This observation predicted a positive relationship between butterfly population density and host species diversity. This prediction was tested and supported by two large-scale surveys of hostplant patches. P. icariodes differed from G. lygdamus in that both ovipositing adults and feeding larvae preferred old leaves to flower buds. The two species also differed in diapause stage, growth rates and reaction to alkaloids. Results predicted a relationship between diapause stage, oviposition site on the plant, and host range. The prediction was tested and upheld by a general survey of temperate lycaenid butterflies. The relationship was significant even when phylogenetic relationships were included in the analysis, and diapause stage was suggested as the characteristic evolutionarily most constrained.

The purpose of this thesis entitled Population Status checkered blue butterfly Phengaris nausithous (Bergsträsser, 1779) on selected meadows in Broumov area was to find and evaluate the situation regarding the size and structure of populations of the butterfly Phengaris nausithous, on a recently selected location within the territory of the Czech Republic. A used monitoring method was a Capture-Recapture method at 13 locations in the PLA Broumovsko, where the occurrence of the food plant Sanguisorba officinalis, which is an integral part of the species evolution, was the key for choosing the location. The ant of the genus Myrmica is also important for the evolution of the P. nausithous. The results were evaluated using the program MARK and Statistika and then transferred into graphs and tables. In 2016 it was marked 687 of the P. nausithous and the sum for the overall metapopulation totaled 1,487 individuals. Most of the P. nausithous occurence with the number of (fixed catches) 149 was registered at the Hynčice 2 (H2) area, which was the third largest area of all studied habitats. The least number of 15 of the P. nausithous has been marked at the Hynčice 1 (H1) area. Maximum estimates of numbersfor patches were determined with the program MARK with the highest number of 367 individuals in the H2 area, whereas the lowest number of 38 individuals at the H1 area.The numbers of P. nausithous determined by the application MARK were significantly higher than those of fixed catches, indicating good aplication of methodology. It was captured a total of 49 migrations. Overall 31 % of individuals migrated and 18 % of individuals migrated within assumed total number. Most flyovers were between the areas H2 and H4 (11 flyovers) and between areas V1 and H4 was recorded flyover at a distance of 5.3 km, which can be considered as one of the longest flyovers. The average distance of migration of P. nausithous was 1.46 km. The number of immigrants for solid flyovers was set to 49 individuals and the number of immigrants to 58 individuals. The hypothesis of this work was: All the examined areas communicates using flyovers of butterflies and the system can be considered as a single metapopulation and was confirmed given on the basis of the results. Target species dependence on the density of host plant vegetation was not crucial according to the graphic representation. The first T-test found that there is no association between P. nausithous abundance and between the length of the migration between particular areas. The second T-test found that with increasing number of flyovers the length of those flyovers gradually decreased.

There where evaluated the changes in abundance of overall metapopulations and abundace of butterflies on surveyed areas occupied by Phengaris nausithous (Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae). It ran on two long-term monitored locations in the Czech Republic : Slavíkovy ostrovy u Přelouče a Dolní Labe u Děčína. Data for this comparison was obtained by longterm monitoring of the abundance of butterflies on these locations. The method of reverse capture of labeled specimens was used and then statisticall processing of marking results in program MARK. In final number of the target species has been found significant fluctuation , after our evaluation. Abudance of total metapopulation in Přelouč in years from 2004 till 2016is variable from 148 up to 1 369 butterflies, numbers in Děčín between 2008 and 2016 has vacillated from 273 to 1952 individuals. Growth of abudance of metapopulation on these two locations are obvious from crossing both diagrams (in years 2006, 2010-11 and 2014-2015). However, observing time-lime is not so long, this is very strong argument to support this hypothesis: ,,From aged time sequence there is noticable graduation periodicity. Than has been compared progression of population of individual locations compare to metapopulation of both locations together and it has discovered this observation is a real picture of aged progress. Most of places of research copying trend of metapopulation. If there are any differences, for example total metapopulation grows, but population of individual location declines, it could be explain as a change of familiar location related on mamagement, in this case on the wrong one. Contrariwise, rising of individual colony against the trend of metapopulation, mostly shows a positive changes in maintenance of site. Long therm researching is highly recommented for rating of impact of management.

Borboletas neotropicais, como os licenídeos, são conhecidas pela notável diversidade, entretanto aspectos ecológicos fundamentais desse grupo taxonômico, particularmente dos imaturos, como informações sobre suas plantas hospedeiras e interações mirmecófilas são praticamente desconhecidos para a maioria das comunidades neotropicais. Além do que, o conhecimento limitado da história natural desses insetos, impede uma melhor compreensão do seu papel ecológico-evolutivo. Com isso, a presente tese teve como objetivo inicial caracterizar a comunidade de imaturos de licenídeos florívoros em uma área de cerrado descrevendo o padrão de sazonalidade, identificando as plantas hospedeiras, a amplitude de dieta e interações com formigas e inimigos naturais. A partir dessa base de informações, o objetivo seguinte foi avaliar a ocorrência de licenídeos florívoros no cerrado de acordo com fatores ligados à disponibilidade de alimento nas plantas e à presença de formigas. Adicionalmente, foram estudados diferentes sistemas de interação licenídeos-plantas-formigas com o intuito de inferir o papel da formiga sobre a seleção de plantas hospedeiras. Em suma, nosso estudo mostrou uma comunidade composta por 31 espécies de Lycaenidae registradas em 41 espécies (17 famílias) de plantas hospedeiras e caracterizada pela marcante sazonalidade, cuja ocorrência de imaturos foi maior durante a estação seca. De forma geral, a comunidade de licenídeos apresentou variação de acordo com a oferta temporal de alimento, acompanhando a fenologia de suas plantas hospedeiras disponíveis no campo. Contudo, a comunidade estudada aqui, formada por licenídeos oligófagos e polífagos teve uma tendência em utilizar plantas com menor quantidade de botões e também selecionar plantas que possuem nectários extraflorais e plantas ocupadas por formigas. Particularmente, nosso estudo revelou que a seleção de plantas hospedeiras mediadas por formigas pode variar de acordo com o sistema estudo. Licenídeos como Allosmaitia strophius e Rekoa marius utilizaram a xi presença de formigas como pista durante a seleção de plantas Heteropterys byrsonimifolia, porém os ovos presentes em ramos com formigas sofreram maior ação de parasitóides. Enquanto que Leptotes cassius mostrou selecionar inflorescências de Bionia coriacea independente da presença de Camponotus, formigas as quais mantém associações facultativas. / The Lycaenidae butterflies are known for their remarkable diversity in the Neotropics; however basic ecological features of this group, especially of the immature stages, such as information about host plants and ant-interactions (myrmecophily) are barely known for most species. Therefore the limited knowledge of lycaenids natural history restrains a better understanding of important ecological-evolutionary aspects. In this thesis we initially characterized the community of florivorous lycaenids in a Brazilian Savanna area, describing the seasonal occurrence of immatures, identifying host plants, the diet breadth and interactions with ants and natural enemies. Then, we evaluated the occurrence of the lycaenids according to factors related to resource availability (host plants) and the presence/absence of ants. In summary, we sampled 31 species of Lycaenidae in 41 plant species (17 families). Immatures were more abundant in the dry season indicating a seasonal pattern of occurrence; in addition lycaenids were related to the temporal availability of food resource, following the phenology of the host plants in the field. The oligophagous and polyphagous species were found predominately in plants which produce few flowers buds. The presence of immatures in extrafloral nectaried plants was commonplace, which was expected given that larvae can benefit from living with ants. A further detailed experimental study revealed that ant presence is a cue for female oviposition in two facultative myrmecophilous lycaenid species Allosmaitia strophius and Rekoa marius, but contrary to our predictions, ants failed to protect lycaenid eggs from parasitoids. In other study system, Leptotes cassius did not discriminate between plants with or without ants, despite the fact that larvae had stable association with ants. Our study indicates that there can be striking differences among lycaenid species with regard to association with ants and the benefits granted from these associations. So generalizations about lycaenid ant associations should be avoided and every study system must be examined with detail.

Borboletas neotropicais, como os licenídeos, são conhecidas pela notável diversidade, entretanto aspectos ecológicos fundamentais desse grupo taxonômico, particularmente dos imaturos, como informações sobre suas plantas hospedeiras e interações mirmecófilas são praticamente desconhecidos para a maioria das comunidades neotropicais. Além do que, o conhecimento limitado da história natural desses insetos, impede uma melhor compreensão do seu papel ecológico-evolutivo. Com isso, a presente tese teve como objetivo inicial caracterizar a comunidade de imaturos de licenídeos florívoros em uma área de cerrado descrevendo o padrão de sazonalidade, identificando as plantas hospedeiras, a amplitude de dieta e interações com formigas e inimigos naturais. A partir dessa base de informações, o objetivo seguinte foi avaliar a ocorrência de licenídeos florívoros no cerrado de acordo com fatores ligados à disponibilidade de alimento nas plantas e à presença de formigas. Adicionalmente, foram estudados diferentes sistemas de interação licenídeos-plantas-formigas com o intuito de inferir o papel da formiga sobre a seleção de plantas hospedeiras. Em suma, nosso estudo mostrou uma comunidade composta por 31 espécies de Lycaenidae registradas em 41 espécies (17 famílias) de plantas hospedeiras e caracterizada pela marcante sazonalidade, cuja ocorrência de imaturos foi maior durante a estação seca. De forma geral, a comunidade de licenídeos apresentou variação de acordo com a oferta temporal de alimento, acompanhando a fenologia de suas plantas hospedeiras disponíveis no campo. Contudo, a comunidade estudada aqui, formada por licenídeos oligófagos e polífagos teve uma tendência em utilizar plantas com menor quantidade de botões e também selecionar plantas que possuem nectários extraflorais e plantas ocupadas por formigas. Particularmente, nosso estudo revelou que a seleção de plantas hospedeiras mediadas por formigas pode variar de acordo com o sistema estudo. Licenídeos como Allosmaitia strophius e Rekoa marius utilizaram a xi presença de formigas como pista durante a seleção de plantas Heteropterys byrsonimifolia, porém os ovos presentes em ramos com formigas sofreram maior ação de parasitóides. Enquanto que Leptotes cassius mostrou selecionar inflorescências de Bionia coriacea independente da presença de Camponotus, formigas as quais mantém associações facultativas. / The Lycaenidae butterflies are known for their remarkable diversity in the Neotropics; however basic ecological features of this group, especially of the immature stages, such as information about host plants and ant-interactions (myrmecophily) are barely known for most species. Therefore the limited knowledge of lycaenids natural history restrains a better understanding of important ecological-evolutionary aspects. In this thesis we initially characterized the community of florivorous lycaenids in a Brazilian Savanna area, describing the seasonal occurrence of immatures, identifying host plants, the diet breadth and interactions with ants and natural enemies. Then, we evaluated the occurrence of the lycaenids according to factors related to resource availability (host plants) and the presence/absence of ants. In summary, we sampled 31 species of Lycaenidae in 41 plant species (17 families). Immatures were more abundant in the dry season indicating a seasonal pattern of occurrence; in addition lycaenids were related to the temporal availability of food resource, following the phenology of the host plants in the field. The oligophagous and polyphagous species were found predominately in plants which produce few flowers buds. The presence of immatures in extrafloral nectaried plants was commonplace, which was expected given that larvae can benefit from living with ants. A further detailed experimental study revealed that ant presence is a cue for female oviposition in two facultative myrmecophilous lycaenid species Allosmaitia strophius and Rekoa marius, but contrary to our predictions, ants failed to protect lycaenid eggs from parasitoids. In other study system, Leptotes cassius did not discriminate between plants with or without ants, despite the fact that larvae had stable association with ants. Our study indicates that there can be striking differences among lycaenid species with regard to association with ants and the benefits granted from these associations. So generalizations about lycaenid ant associations should be avoided and every study system must be examined with detail.

The violet copper (Lycaena helle) is one of the most endangered butterflies in Europe, with a population pattern of steady decline despite consevation efforts. The main threat to the species is believed to be habitat fragmentation and loss due to changes in land use practices. In order to direct conservation efforts toward the areas where they make the most difference, we need to better understand the ecological needs of the species, on both local and meta population levels. Since habitat quality is a crucial factor for succesful reproduction, increased knowledge of the species’ habitat requirements is of utmost importance. In this study, I investigated whether there is a correlation between the share of hatched eggs and leaf size and shape of the host plant Bistorta vivipara, which vary greatly depending on the level of solar exposure. In the summer of 2022, I searched for eggs and larvae of L. helle on leaves of B. vivipara on three rich fens situated in the municipality of Ånge, Västernorrland County. All leaves with eggs and/or larvae were photographed next to a ruler in order to measure length and width, and the total number of eggs as well as the number of hatched eggs were documented. I then divided the leaves into four classes based on the length/width ratio. Chi-square tests were conducted on the share of hatched eggs per leaf class and locality. The results showed a tendency for a larger share of hatched eggs than expected in leaf class 2, and a smaller share of hatched eggs than expected in leaf class 3, but the results were non-significant. Similarly, the results showed a tendency of a larger share of hatched eggs than expected on locality 2, and slightly smaller shares of hatched eggs on localities 1 and 3, but these too were non-significant. In conclusion, more studies are needed in order to better understand how we can conserve this threatened species.

Detailed knowledge about the habitat requirements of butterflies is vital for successful conservation. The aim of the present study was to examine the habitat requirements of the endangered butterfly Scolitantides orion on 15 sites in Östergötland, Sweden. The requirements of adults and ovipositing females were studied with regard to several environmental variables measured at three scales; small, transect and large scale. The probability of finding adults increased with decreasing tree cover at the small scale, and adult numbers increased with the proportion of bare rock at the large scale. In contrast, ovipositing females mainly responded to the small scale. The main finding was that females oviposited in areas with higher tree cover (< 70 %) than that preferred by dwelling adults (< 20 %). However, there was a greater probability of finding eggs when tree cover was less than 50 %. Furthermore, egg numbers on host plants increased with the number of leaves on the stem and with the proportion of surrounding bare rock or bare ground. At the transect scale, females oviposited in areas with a higher density of host plants. To conclude, S. orion predominately inhabits open areas with warm microclimatic conditions for dwelling and oviposition. To conserve this species, suitable areas containing nectar plants and high densities of host plants with large leaf numbers and surrounded by large proportions of bare rock or bare ground, should be preserved. The areas should be maintained by selective clearing at regular intervals to uphold canopy openness and heterogeneity.

Migrations are the key process and one of the basic biological features, which allow survival of endangered species in fragmented landscape. In the last decades, agriculture intensification, industry and urbanization caused that number of natural butterfly habitats has significantly decreased. The localities originally suitable for butterflies are currnetly converted to farmland or building plots. This PhD thesis aimed to find a compromise solution of meadow management, which should allow a commercial use and concurrently do not jeopardize the continued existence of endangered or threatened species. The main idea of this study was in the intentional emigration causing in the middle of flight period, which should lead into resettlement of the population to another (potentially more suitable) locality. Possibility of aimed manipulation with butterfly emigrations would be considered as a major breakthrough in their protection. The investigated species Phengaris nausithous (Bergsträsser, 1779) and Phengaris teleius (Bergsträsser, 1779) are both considered to be flagship species for protection of European butterflies at open meadows. This study is based on research, which was carried out in 2013-2015 at 17 patch in localities Dolní Labe, Czech Republic. In above mentioned years, one selected meadow was mowed in the middle of flight season and the emigrations were then monitored using mark-release-recapture method. Results of population and migration characteristics were calculated in MARK 8.1 software. Subsequently, the effect of mowing on emigration (comparison of emigrations from the meadow before and after mowing) was evaluated using Statistica 13. The hypotheses of this study were based on the assumption, that the loss of resources after well-timed mowing should increase the activity of adult butterflies. During the monitoring, number of emigrations was increased only in flight season 2015. Unfortunately, the statistical evaluation did not show significant effect of mowing on migrations. On the other hand, the hypothesis dealing with colonization of nearest meadows was confirmed. Effect of intentional emigration caused by management interventions was unfortunately not proved. However, we found out, that even though the population at one mowed meadow decreased clearly, the metapopulation size at the locality remained more or less stable. At investigated (mowed) meadow, there was observed a sharp decline of P. nausithous abundance. On the other hand, P. teleius population was only slightly reduced. It is therefore conceivable, that P. teleius are not as susceptible to innapropriate term of mowing. The results obtained in our research conclusively displayed no possible positive effect of mowing in the middle of flight season and a necessity of suitable management maintenance at localities inhabited by Phengaris butterflies.

The violet copper (Lycaena helle) is one of Europe’s most endangered butterflies as a result of loss and fragmentation of its habitat. In order to further understand the habitat requirements of this species it is important to observe the specific characteristics of the oviposition sites. There is little research on L. helle in Sweden and the least in the northern parts. In this study I searched for eggs and larvae along a seashore meadow in Norrbotten County where a substantial number of L. helle recently had been found. The area differed from the species’ usual habitat in that the host plant Bistorta vivipara was scarce in large parts. The coastline was split into two areas for comparison according to vegetation type and direction of the shore, one seemingly more suitable for L. helle and the other less so. The results showed that oviposition sites had a lower coverage of, and average height, of the surrounding vegetation than potential oviposition sites without eggs. The coverage of the host plant did not differ between oviposition sites and sites without eggs. Most of the eggs were found on the first area where, surprisingly, a few Bistorta vivipara had up to eight eggs on a single leaf. The sometimes complete lack of eggs on the second area, while still containing a reasonable amount of Bistorta vivipara, confirms that the presence of the host plant is not enough for the females to lay eggs and that any host plant will not be chosen as an oviposition site. The amount of eggs found in the first area together with its structure and east-facing shore further confirms that this species is dependent on lower and more sparse vegetation together with high solar radiation.

The butterfly family Lycaenidae (including the Riodinidae) contains an estimated 30% of all butterfly species and exhibits a diverse array of life history strategies. The early stages of most lycaenids associate with ants to varying degrees, ranging from casual facultative coexistence through to obligate association where the long-term survival of the butterfly is dependent on the presence of its attendant ants. Attendant ants guard the butterflies against predators and parasites during their vulnerable period of larval growth and pupation. The caterpillars, in return, reward the ants by providing attractive secretions from specialized glands in their cuticle. The prevalence of caterpillar-ant associations in the species rich Lycaenidae is in contrast with other Lepidoptera, where ant association appears only as isolated cases in otherwise non ant-associated lineages. This has led to the proposal that ant association may have influenced lycaenid diversification or even enhanced the rates of speciation in the group. In contrast, facultative ant-associated butterflies exhibit high levels of host plant integrity, so it is reasonable to assume that host plants may have played a significant role in their diversification. Since the influence of ants (or plants) on diversification is independent of geographic speciation modes such as vicariance or peripheral isolates, there is an underlying inference of sympatric speciation. Certain prerequisites thought to be important for sympatric speciation, such as mating on the host plant (or in the presence of the appropriate ant) as well as ant dependent oviposition preferences are characteristic of many obligate myrmecophiles. Not surprisingly, it has been suggested that evidence for sympatric speciation is more likely to be found in the Insecta since this additional mode of diversification could account for the large numbers of insect species. This thesis tested the diversification processes in obligate and facultative ant associated lycaenids using comparative methodologies in hierarchical molecular phylogenetic analyses. First, several hypotheses relating to the influence of ants on diversification in obligately ant associated lycaenid butterflies were tested in a phylogeographic analysis of the Australian endemic Jalmenus evagoras. The phylogeographic analysis revealed that regional isolation of butterfly subpopulations coincident with locally adapted ant taxa could generate a phylogenetic pattern in which related lycaenids would be seen to associate with related or ecologically similar ants. Likewise, ecological shifts in habitat preferences by lycaenids could lead to co-diversification with habitat specialist ants, even though in both cases, the ants may play only an incidental role in the diversification process. A comparative methodology was then applied in a molecular phylogenetic analysis of the genus Jalmenus to test for a signal of diversification consistent with shifts in ant partners, and to infer the processes by which ants could influence speciation. Several other specific hypotheses relating to monophyly and taxonomy were also examined. Comparative analysis of the Jalmenus phylogeny found that attendant ant shifts coincided with high levels of sympatry among sister species. This pattern could be explained by sympatric speciation; however, data suggested it was more likely that ant shifts occurred during butterfly population expansions as a result of vegetation and climate changes in the Pleistocene. Fragmentation of populations associating with novel ants could promote rapid ecological and behavioural changes and this could result in reproductive isolation of conspecifics when in secondary contact. Diversification would then continue in sympatry. In contrast, secondary contact of populations associating with the same ant species would result in homogenisation of the two lycaenid lineages or the extinction of one. A phylogeographic analysis of the facultative myrmecophiles, Theclinesthes albocincta/T. hesperia, was then undertaken to infer the evolutionary processes (such as the effects of host plant shifts) that could result in extant demographics. Species-specific questions of taxonomy, relative population ages and dispersal routes in arid Australia were also addressed. Results from the analysis suggested the two taxa were conspecific and had diversified in the late Pleistocene as a consequence of isolation in refugia in and around the arid areas of mainland Australia. However, as was the case in the J. evagoras population analysis in which attendant ant shifts were not detected, host plant shifts were not detected in the population analysis of T. albocincta/hesperia. Host plant or attendant ant shifts manifest more frequently at the species level, thus it was necessary to test the influence of host plant shifts at this higher level. The comparative methodology was then applied to a molecular phylogenetic analysis of the facultative ant-associated section Theclinesthes (comprising Theclinesthes, Sahulana and Neolucia) to test for modes of diversification consistent with host plant shifts. The relative importance of other influences on diversification was also assessed. Akin to the Jalmenus analysis, the prediction that sister species ranges should broadly overlap when a shift in host plants had taken place was upheld in the comparative analysis. Species in the genera Jalmenus and Theclinesthes were found to have diversified in the Pleistocene so were subject to the same climatic oscillations that influenced patterns of vegetation expansion and contraction across much of Australia. Thus, the similarity and predictability of relationships in the comparative analyses based on biological data suggested that host plant shifts have influenced diversification in facultative myrmecophiles by inhibiting gene flow in secondary contact in similar fashion to that of attendant ant shifts identified in the Jalmenus phylogeny. Interpretation of data in these analyses suggested that allopatric diversification was the most common mode of speciation. Isolation was inferred to be the result of fragmentation following long distance dispersal across wide expanses of marginal habitat, or vicariance following the closing of biogeographical barriers. However, attendant-ant and host-plant shifts clearly played an important role in the diversification process, and in the maintenance of species integrity among lycaenid butterflies. Furthermore, exceptions to the predicted patterns of range overlap and ecological shifts provided clues to additional modes of diversification including shifts in habitat preferences and an unusual temporal shift following changes in specific host plant phenology resulting in allochronic diversification. Inferring modes of diversification using comparative methods based on range overlap and biological traits in a phylogenetic context is not new; however, the interpretation presented in this thesis is in contrast with contemporary methods. It is clear that the patterns of species range overlap and the ecological preferences of sister taxa are intimately related among lycaenid species that diversified during the Pleistocene. As a result, different influences on diversification can be highlighted in phylogenies when applying existing comparative methodologies but without necessarily drawing the same conclusions about modes of diversification. A more inclusive explanation for patterns of range overlap among sister taxa is detailed, a consequence of which is a method for estimating rates of extinction in a phylogeny where comprehensive distributional, biological and taxonomic data are available. These patterns and predictions may be applicable to a range of taxa, especially those that have diversified in the Pleistocene. Plans for future studies are outlined.