Submitted by Jean Medeiros (jeanletras@uepb.edu.br) on 2017-03-08T11:48:14Z No. of bitstreams: 1 PDF - Carlinda Raílly Ferreira Medeiros.pdf: 19271208 bytes, checksum: 6edbd98fe784b3bffa46e2f726c5002e (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2017-03-08T11:48:14Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 PDF - Carlinda Raílly Ferreira Medeiros.pdf: 19271208 bytes, checksum: 6edbd98fe784b3bffa46e2f726c5002e (MD5) Previous issue date: 2016-02-29 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior - CAPES / Understanding the composition and distribution of biological communities in landscape or region level, in the face of environmental conditions is a major challenge faced by the scientific community. Understanding these processes provides information on the functioning of ecosystems, facilitating decision-making aimed at conserving biodiversity. Thus, this work consists of two chapters, whose aims are, respectively: (i) assess whether the benthic macroinvertebrate communities in response to environmental factors of tropical estuaries, and (ii) assess whether the beta diversity of macrobenthic communities are structured by turnover (i.e., replacement of species) or nesting (i.e., nested subsets of species). The communities of benthic macroinvertebrates were sampled in two tropical estuaries, the estuary of the Paraíba do Norte River and Mamanguape, in the dry and wet seasons. The estuaries have differences in terms of use and occupation of land in the drainage basin. In each estuary, was previously defined the estuarine gradient being established four subtidal zones. In each area, three collection points were set with 3 sample units each. In the first chapter, in addition to samples of benthic macroinvertebrates subtidal, data were considered regarding the environmental factors measured in each estuary. The persistence of benthic macroinvertebrates, and the variability of environmental factors between seasonal periods and zones of the estuarine gradient was evaluated by the distance of the points from their centroids in the dimensional space. The higher proportions of contributions for each seasonal period and zones of the estuarine gradient were identified by analyzing the percentage of similarity (SIMPER). In the heavily impacted estuary, during the dry season, the environmental factors were more variable and communities of benthic macroinvertebrates were more persistent. In the estuary with lesser degrees of anthropogenic influences, environmental factors were more variable in the wet season, where communities were more persistent. The highest rate of contribution ratios in the estuary with higher anthropogenic influences in both seasonal periods was recorded for Laeonereis gender indicator organically enriched sites. In the estuary with the lowest degree of anthropogenic influence, Polypedilum was the taxa with major contributions of ecosystems, facilitating decision-making aimed at conserving measured in each estuary. The persistence of benthic to both seasonal periods, which is a genre associated with better local environmental quality. In conclusion, the environmental variability boosted the persistence of benthic macroinvertebrate communities in tropical estuaries. For the second chapter, the sample design was designed hierarchically and applied the additive partitioning method of diversity to determine the hierarchy with the highest dissimilarity (beta diversity) in the composition of benthic communities. The general beta diversity was measured by the dissimilarity index of Sorensen and partitioned in turnover and nesting components. The greatest dissimilarity in the composition of the communities occurred between the zones along the estuarine gradient in both seasons (dry = 58.6%; wet = 46.3%). In the estuary with the lowest degree of anthropogenic influence, regardless of the season, benthic macroinvertebrate diversity was generated by turnover. In the heavily impacted estuary, during the dry season, beta diversity was structured by turnover, while in the wet season it was structured by a combination of the two mechanisms. We conclude that the principal mechanism responsible for beta diversity in benthic macroinvertebrate communities of tropical estuaries is turnover (i.e., species substitution). As a general conclusion of the dissertation, the main approaches considered in this study (persistence of communities, additive partitioning and general beta diversity) were important tools for understanding the ecological processes that generate the distribution of benthic macroinvertebrate communities in tropical estuaries. These approaches should be taken into consideration in the development of projects aimed at management of estuarine ecosystems and consequent biodiversity conservation. / Compreender a composição e distribuição das comunidades biológicas em nível de paisagem ou região, frente às condições do ambiente é um dos principais desafios enfrentados pela comunidade cientifica. A compreensão desses processos proporciona a obtenção de informações sobre o funcionamento dos ecossistemas, facilitando a tomada de decisões voltadas à conservação da biodiversidade. Assim, esta dissertação é composta por dois capítulos, cujos objetivos são, respectivamente: (i) avaliar a persistência das comunidades de macroinvertebrados bentônicos em resposta aos fatores ambientais de estuários tropicais, e (ii) avaliar se a diversidade beta das comunidades macrobentônicas são estruturadas por turnover (i.e. substituição de espécies) ou aninhamento (i. e. aninhado subconjunto de espécies). As comunidades de macroinvertebrados bentônicos foram amostradas em dois estuários tropicais, o estuário do Rio Paraíba do Norte e Rio Mamanguape, no período de seca e chuva. Os estuários possuem diferenças em termos de uso e ocupação do solo na bacia de drenagem. Em cada estuário, foi previamente definido o gradiente estuarino, sendo estabelecidas quatro zonas subtidais. Em cada zona, foram definidos 3 pontos de coleta, com 3 unidades amostrais cada. No primeiro capítulo, além das amostras de macroinvertebrados bentônicos subtidais, foram utilizados dados dos fatores ambientais mensurados em cada ponto dos estuários. A persistência da macrofauna bentônica, assim como a variabilidade dos fatores ambientais entre os períodos sazonais e zonas do gradiente estuarino, foi avaliada através da distância dos pontos em relação aos seus centroides no espaço dimensional. Os taxa que apresentaram maiores proporções de contribuições aninhado subconjuntos de espécies). As comunidades de para cada período sazonal e zonas do gradiente estuarino foram identificados através da análise de porcentagem de similaridade (SIMPER). No estuário com maior grau de influência antrópica (Paraíba do Norte), os fatores ambientais foram mais variáveis no período de seca e as comunidades de macroinvertebrados bentônicos foram mais persistentes. No estuário com menor grau de influência antrópica (Mamanguape), os fatores ambientais foram mais variáveis no período de chuva, onde as comunidades foram mais persistentes. A maior proporção de contribuição de taxa no estuário com maior influência antrópica, em ambos os períodos sazonais, foi registrada para o gênero Laeonereis (Polychaeta), indicador de locais organicamente enriquecidos. No estuário com menor influência antrópica, Polypedilum (Diptera) foi o gênero com maior contribuição para ambos os períodos sazonais, sendo este um gênero associado a locais com melhor qualidade ambiental. Em conclusão, a variabilidade ambiental gerou a persistência das comunidades de macroinvertebrados bentônicos em estuários tropicais. Para o segundo capítulo, o desenho amostral foi delineado hierarquicamente e aplicado o método de partição aditiva da diversidade para determinar a escala hierárquica com maior dissimilaridade (diversidade beta) na composição das comunidades bentônicas. A diversidade beta geral foi mensurada através do índice de dissimilaridade de Sore nsen e particionado nos componentes turnover e aninhamento. A maior dissimilaridade na composição das comunidades ocorreu entre as zonas do gradiente estuarino (seca = 58,1%; chuva = 35,3%). No estuário com menor influência antrópica, a diversidade beta das comunidades de macroinvertebrados bentônicos foi gerada por turnover em ambos os períodos sazonais. No estuário mais impactado, a diversidade beta foi estruturada por turnover no período de seca, enquanto que no período de chuva a combinação dos dois mecanismos gerou a diversidade beta. Em conclusão, o principal mecanismo responsável pela diversidade beta das comunidades de macroinvertebrados bentônicos de estuários tropicais foi o turnover. Como conclusão geral da dissertação, as principais abordagens consideradas neste estudo (persistência das comunidades, particionamento aditivo e diversidade beta geral), foram ferramentas relevantes para a compreensão dos processos ecológicos que geram a distribuição das comunidades de macroinvertebrados bentônicos em estuários tropicais. Essas abordagens devem ser levadas em consideração no desenvolvimento de projetos voltados à gestão de ecossistemas estuarinos e consequente conservação da biodiversidade.

Due to intensive coastal development, a combination of local (e.g. pollution, fishing) and global pressures (such as climate change) is affecting marine habitats worldwide. This is a pressing issue in Saudi Arabia, particularly considering the plans for the expansion of sea-related activities within the Saudi Arabia's Vision 2030 framework. Sustaining some of those activities, such as tourism, is dependent upon the maintenance of good ecosystem health. National monitoring programs in Saudi Arabia are scarce and a lack of sound knowledge on how marine organisms change in space and time and what the main factors driving their responses are, limits the contribution of scientists to the management and conservation of the Red Sea. Here we provide baseline knowledge, that can be critical for assessing changes associated with current and future coastal development as well as climate change by collecting data across multiple spatial (including multiple habitats) and temporal scales for the analysis of macroinvertebrate organisms and environmental drivers. One of the most striking findings is related to the low densities observed for macroinvertebrates, making populations potentially vulnerable to disturbance. We also highlight the contribution of different habitats within the seascape and the need to prioritize the features of the bottoms for management and conservation purposes. Each habitat has a unique ecological signature but they are connected to adjacent habitats through a subset of species able to utilize different biotopes within the seascape. Disrupting this ecological network may affect biodiversity patterns from local to regional levels. Within each habitat, temporal variability should be taken into account as patterns change on a seasonal and annual scale. The aim of the thesis is to contribute to the sustainable development of the Red Sea, a unique resource shared among several countries, which will result in a long-term benefit to the Kingdom of Saudi Arabia, and other countries. Information provided is critical as previous knowledge for the region was almost inexistent and allows for future studies to investigate and predict the impacts of intense coastal development and inform conservation and management decisions.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo geral o estudo da composição e estrutura da macrofauna bêntica em escala espacial e sazonal, da região de Cabo Frio (RJ). O aspecto temporal nessa área é especialmente importante devido a ocorrência do fenômeno sazonal da ressurgência costeira. Esse ocorre devido alguns fatores físicos característicos da área, tais como mudanças na topografia e na direção da costa, e principalmente, em decorrência das condições meteorológicas atuantes no local. A interação desses fatores favorece, principalmente no verão, o ressurgimento próximo à costa da Água Central do Atlântico Sul (ACAS), uma massa de água fria e rica em nutrientes. Essa massa de água disponibiliza grande quantidade de nutrientes para o fitoplâncton das camadas superficiais, ocasionando uma elevada produção primária nova. Parte dessa produção é exportada para o fundo incrementando a biomassa bêntica. Assim, a comunidade bêntica assume um papel vital no ecossistema, sendo tanto receptora como fornecedora de energia. Os descritores de comunidade (densidade, biomassa, riqueza, diversidade e equitatividade) e a identificação dos grupos tróficos de Polychaeta foram analisados entre 40 e 1000m de profundidade e em três épocas do ano, inverno de 2001 e verão e primavera de 2002. A integração dos dados biológicos com os ambientais mostrou que as variações espaciais na estrutura e composição dos organismos foi relacionada à profundidade e ao tipo de sedimento verificado nas estações. A estrutura da comunidade também apresentou variações temporais, especialmente nas estações situadas na plataforma continental, respondendo à entrada de matéria orgânica decorrente do evento de ressurgência. / The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the composition and spatial and seasonal structure of the macrobenthic fauna off Cabo Frio (RJ). The temporal scale was investigated in the light of the seasonal coastal upwelling. This phenomenon occurs due to changes in bottom topography and in the coastline direction, and specially, because of the prevailing seasonal NE winds in the area. The interaction of these factors enables the South Atlantic Central Water (SACW) to rise up and reaches the surface, intensively during the summer months. Large amounts of nutrients are then brought to the euphotic zone, enhancing primary productivity. This high productivity increases food supply for benthic communities by sinking of particulate organic carbon. In this way, the benthic communities are an important link in the ecosystem. The density of organisms, biomass, species richness and evenness and also the trophic group of Polychaeta were analyzed in a depth gradient from 40 to 1000m during the 2001 winter and 2002 summer and spring. Faunal distributional patterns and species composition correlated with environmental variables, especially depth and sediment types. The faunal structure also showed temporal changes along the sample period, especially in the stations located in the continental shelf due to the input of organic matter to the sea floor.

O presente trabalho tem como objetivo geral o estudo da composição e estrutura da macrofauna bêntica em escala espacial e sazonal, da região de Cabo Frio (RJ). O aspecto temporal nessa área é especialmente importante devido a ocorrência do fenômeno sazonal da ressurgência costeira. Esse ocorre devido alguns fatores físicos característicos da área, tais como mudanças na topografia e na direção da costa, e principalmente, em decorrência das condições meteorológicas atuantes no local. A interação desses fatores favorece, principalmente no verão, o ressurgimento próximo à costa da Água Central do Atlântico Sul (ACAS), uma massa de água fria e rica em nutrientes. Essa massa de água disponibiliza grande quantidade de nutrientes para o fitoplâncton das camadas superficiais, ocasionando uma elevada produção primária nova. Parte dessa produção é exportada para o fundo incrementando a biomassa bêntica. Assim, a comunidade bêntica assume um papel vital no ecossistema, sendo tanto receptora como fornecedora de energia. Os descritores de comunidade (densidade, biomassa, riqueza, diversidade e equitatividade) e a identificação dos grupos tróficos de Polychaeta foram analisados entre 40 e 1000m de profundidade e em três épocas do ano, inverno de 2001 e verão e primavera de 2002. A integração dos dados biológicos com os ambientais mostrou que as variações espaciais na estrutura e composição dos organismos foi relacionada à profundidade e ao tipo de sedimento verificado nas estações. A estrutura da comunidade também apresentou variações temporais, especialmente nas estações situadas na plataforma continental, respondendo à entrada de matéria orgânica decorrente do evento de ressurgência. / The main objective of the present study was to evaluate the composition and spatial and seasonal structure of the macrobenthic fauna off Cabo Frio (RJ). The temporal scale was investigated in the light of the seasonal coastal upwelling. This phenomenon occurs due to changes in bottom topography and in the coastline direction, and specially, because of the prevailing seasonal NE winds in the area. The interaction of these factors enables the South Atlantic Central Water (SACW) to rise up and reaches the surface, intensively during the summer months. Large amounts of nutrients are then brought to the euphotic zone, enhancing primary productivity. This high productivity increases food supply for benthic communities by sinking of particulate organic carbon. In this way, the benthic communities are an important link in the ecosystem. The density of organisms, biomass, species richness and evenness and also the trophic group of Polychaeta were analyzed in a depth gradient from 40 to 1000m during the 2001 winter and 2002 summer and spring. Faunal distributional patterns and species composition correlated with environmental variables, especially depth and sediment types. The faunal structure also showed temporal changes along the sample period, especially in the stations located in the continental shelf due to the input of organic matter to the sea floor.

Three approaches were employed to examine the effects of elevated sediment trace metal concentrations on estuarine/marine macrobenthic invertebrate assemblages. The initial study examined macroinvertebrate communities along a known polymetallic gradient, Lake Macquarie, NSW (gradient study). The second study experimentally tested if sediments sourced from different locations within Lake Macquarie differentially influenced the recolonisation of benthic invertebrates. The third study investigated the different recolonisation patterns of benthic invertebrates into sediments spiked with increasing concentrations of sediment-bound cadmium. In the Lake Macquarie gradient study, four locations (Cockle Bay, Warner's Bay, Kooroora Bay and Nord's Wharf) were sampled in winter 2000 and summer 2003 using a hierarchical design (location > site > plot). On both sampling occasions, the sediments showed strong gradients in lead, cadmium and zinc concentrations emanating from the Cockle Bay industrialised region in the lake's north, with concentrations being significantly lower in the most southern and less urbanised location (Nord's Wharf). In general, concentrations of lead, cadmium and zinc in the sediments increased among locations in the following order: Nord's Wharf > Kooroora Bay > Warner's Bay > Cockle Bay. AVSJSEM analyses indicated that in some sites in Cockle Bay, and to a lesser extent Warner's Bay, SEM concentrations exceeded their molar equivalence of AVS, indicating the potential for trace metals to be labile within the porewaters. Granulometry also changed along the gradient, with a higher proportion of silt/clay occurring in the locations with high metal concentrations. Conversely, the percentage of total organic carbon was higher in the less contaminated locations. In winter 2000, changes in benthic communities along the gradient supported the a priori hypotheses, with diversity and richness being greater in locations with lower concentrations of metals. Polychaetes were most numerous in Cockle Bay and Warner's Bay, whilst bivalves and gastropods were more abundant in Nord's Wharf and Kooroora Bay. Crustaceans were more numerous in Nord's Wharf; with all other locations having similar, lower, abundances. Ordination maps of the assemblages provided relatively clear separation of the assemblages among locations, with nonparametric multivariate analysis of variance (NPMANOVA) and subsequent pair-wise comparisons finding significant differences among the assemblages from all locations. SIMPER analyses found the highest level of dissimilarity was between the Nord's Wharf and Cockle Bay assemblages - primarily attributable to differences in the relative contributions of isopods; tellenid bivalves; and the polychaete families Spionidae, Opheliidae and Nephytidae. Weighted Spearman rank correlations (BIOENV) identified cadmium (Pw =0.74) as the strongest environmental (single or combination) variable to correlate with biotic assemblages. Benthic patterns along the gradient were less defined in summer 2003 due to a dramatic reduction in the abundance and diversity of fauna in Nord's Wharf. This decline was possibly attributable to a sustained reduction in salinity caused by a prolonged rainfall event. With the exception of Nord's Wharf, trends in the community indices and abundances of key taxa among the other locations were similar to those reported in winter 2000. Multivariate analyses discriminated the benthic assemblages from the four locations, with the findings from the NPMANOVA pair-wise comparisons indicating that the assemblages from all four locations were significantly different. SIMPER analyses showed the highest level of dissimilarity was between Nord's Wharf and Warner's Bay, with these differences being primarily attributable to their relative abundances of amphipods and polychaetes from the families Spionidae, Cirratulidae, Opheliidae and Capitellidae. BIOENV found that the combination of the sedimentary concentrations of cadmium and iron provided the best correlation (Pw =0.73) with biotic patterns, with similar correlations occumng with the addition of lead and its covariate, zinc (Pw =0.72). The combined findings from the gradient study established a strong correlation between trace metal concentrations within the sediments and suite of univariate and multivariate measurements. The low abundance and diversity of fauna in Nord's Wharf in the summer of 2003 highlighted the dynamic changes which can occur in the distributions of macrobenthic invertebrates. Although the study indicated that there was a strong relationship between trace metal concentrations and benthic community structure, the study was correlative, and requires subsequent experimental testing to confirm the causality of the observed relationships. The second component of the research was a translocation experiment using benthic recolonisation as an end-point. The experiment was performed to identify if the sediments, and not location, were influencing the composition of benthic assemblages in Lake Macquarie. Sediments were collected from three locations (Cockle Bay, Warner's Bay and Nord's Wharf), defaunated, and transplanted in three new locations along the south-east edge of the lake. At each location, 10 containers of each treatment were randomly placed in the sediment and allowed to recolonise for 22 weeks. Upon retrieval, the benthic communities were sampled and enumerated in conjunction with a variety of chemical and sedimentary measurements. Ten replicate invertebrate samples were also collected in the sediments adjacent to the experiment (ambient samples) at the completion of the experiment. Due to human interference, the containers from only two locations were analysed. Upon retrieval, pH and redox profiles of the sediments were similar to those expected in natural sediments. In general, concentrations of metals were low in the porewaters; however, iron precipitation on the porewater collection devices may have artificially increased the diffusion of metals, increasing concentrations near the sediment-water interface. Concentrations of SEM exceeded their AVS equivalence in some samples taken from the Cockle Bay and Warner's Bay treatments. Two-way ANOVAs found significant interactions between location and sediment treatments in diversity, evenness and the number of polychaetes, as well as significant differences in the number of capitellids and crustaceans among locations. Post-hoc comparisons of means found the Nord's Wharf sediment contained a higher mean number of individuals than the other treatments, including the ambient samples. nMDS ordination plots for both locations provided poor graphical discrimination of the assemblages among treatments; however, NPMANOVA detected significant location and treatment interactions. In both locations, pair-wise comparisons indicated that the assemblages within the Nord's Wharf treatments were significantly different to the Cockle Bay, Warner's Bay and ambient assemblages. No significant differences were detected between the Cockle Bay and Warner's Bay assemblages at either location. SIMPER analyses found the highest level of dissimilarity occurred between the ambient assemblages in Location 2 and the Nord's Wharf treatment, primarily due to the relative difference in the abundances of Capitellidae, Spionidae, Oweniidae, Nereididae and isopods among the assemblages. The findings from the translocation experiment suggest that the sediments are influencing the recolonisation of benthos. However, because differences were not detected between the Cockle Bay and Warner's Bay treatments, the approach used in the study shows potential as an in situ technique which could be used to assess the potential ecological risks of sediments fiom specific locations. Excluding cost and time considerations, the technique's primary disadvantage is the lack of a true control. As a result, the technique can only identify if the sediments are modifying benthic recolonisation, and not causality. The final component of the research experimentally tested if elevated concentrations of sediment-bound cadmium affected benthic invertebrate recolonisation. Sediments from the south coast of New South Wales (Durras Lake) were defaunated, and spiked with cadmium under anaerobic conditions to obtain three targeted cadmium concentrations: control (<O.1 ug/g), Low-Cd (15 Cd ug/g) and High-Cd (150 Cd ug/g). The physio-chemical properties of the waters and porewater concentrations of cadmium were monitored over a 28-day equilibration period, with declines in pH mediated with the addition of NaOH(aq). At the end of the equilibration period, porewater concentrations of cadmium were low in the Low-Cd and High-Cd treatments (maximum <l.5 ug/L in High-Cd), and below the detection limit in the control. Cadmium was not detected in the control sediments, with concentrations in the Cd-Low and Cd-High sediments exceeding their targeted concentrations, with final mean concentrations of 17 ug/g and 183 ug/g, respectively. The experimental design was similar to that employed in the translocation experiment, with 10 containers from each treatment transplanted into the sediments at three locations within Lake Macquarie. After 20 weeks, the containers were collected, along with benthic invertebrate samples from the ambient sediments. Data was not used from Location C due to extensive sediment deposition on the transplanted treatments. Significant declines occurred in the concentrations of cadmium in both the Low-Cd and High-Cd sediments, with the greatest loss occumng in the surficial sediments. The loss of cadmium was probably due to the differential loss of the fine fraction through physical means (hydrodynamic) rather than fluxing, as it assumed that the cadmium was primarily sediment-bound and relatively insoluble under anoxic conditions. Mean porewater concentrations of cadmium were below the detection limit in the control treatments; < 1 ug/L in the Low-Cd treatment, and generally < 2ug/L in the High-Cd, with the exception of some samples in Location B (maximum 5.6 ug/L) Concentrations of ammonia were low in the porewaters from the surficial sediments, with concentrations being significantly higher, and potentially toxic, in the anoxic porewaters (7 cm depth). In comparison to the previous recolonisation experiment, the number of individuals which recolonised the cadmium-spiked treatments was low, and significantly lower than the mean number of individuals sampled in the ambient sediments. No significant differences were detected among the treatments or locations (and their interactions) in diversity (H'), richness (d) or evenness (J). The number of polychaetes and molluscs significantly differed among the treatments, with post-hoc analyses indicating these differences were not among the cadmium-spike treatments, but were due to a greater mean abundance of these taxa in the ambient sediments. A significant interaction between treatment and location was detected in the mean abundance of crustaceans, with the ambient sediments having significantly lower mean abundances in both Location A and B. Ordination plots of the experiments in Location A and B provided poor graphical discrimination among the spiked treatments, although the ambient assemblages appear to be separated from the cadmium-spiked assemblages. NPMANOVA detected a significant interaction between treatments and locations, as well as among treatments. In both Location A and B, pair-wise analyses found the assemblages in the ambient sediments to be significantly different to the assemblages in all three cadmium treatments, with no differences being detected among the latter. SIMPER analyses found the highest levels of dissimilarity occurred between the spike-treatments and the ambient sediments, with these differences being primarily due to the relatively higher abundance of decapods in the spiked treatments, and capitellids in the ambient sediments. The cadmium-spiking component of the experiment clearly illustrated that artificially increasing the trace metal concentrations of metals in estuarine sediments is a complex process which needs to be performed in a methodological manner in order to obtain homogenous treatments with low porewater concentrations, and minimal artefacts. Furthermore, the results confirmed that the equilibration time for sediments can be extensive (several weeks), even in the case of organically rich sediments. The timing of the experiment (commenced late summer, February, 2003) appears to the major factor for the relatively low recolonisation rates, with the experiment missing the main larval recolonisation period between spring and early summer. Even in the highest treatment, elevated concentrations of cadmium did not appear to affect benthic recolonisation. This finding is supported by other experimental studies which suggest that concentrations of a single isolated metal must considerably exceed current guideline values (or contain high porewater concentrations) in order to elicit a biological effect. Nevertheless, as trace metals generally co-occur with other contaminants - with the response of multiple contaminants being possibly additive or synergistic - a conservative guideline value may be suitable in the interim as a precautionary measure. The findings of this thesis suggest that elevated concentrations of trace metal mixtures in estuarine sediments can affect the structure and composition of benthic communities; however, identifying causality is difficult. Although there has been an increase in the use of manipulative field experiments as a means of reducing the confounding influence of covariables found in field studies, this approach also has limitations, e.g. spatial and temporal scale issues, container effects, cost and biogeochemical changes to the sediments. Measuring stress at a community level is a fundamental component of estuarine risk assessment programs; and in isolation this approach can produce subjective and confounded findings. In order to accurately assess the risks associated with trace metal contaminated sediments, an integrated approach (e.g. weight of evidence) is required, one which uses multiple lines of evidence sourced from various chemical, environmental biological measurements.

Stability of the macrobenthic community in a regulated section of the Brazos River, Texas, was evaluated. Physicochemical data and information on spatial distribution of macrobenthos were collected. Populations of two invertebrate species, Isonychia sicca and Neoperla clymene, had been greatly reduced since 1970-71 and I. sicca had been practically eliminated from this section of the Brazos. Three other insect populations, Choroterpes mexicanus, Cheumatopsche campyla and Cheumatopsyche lasia, had more than doubled their numbers since the 1970-71 study. A physicochemical gradient existed in this regulated section of the Brazos but it appeared to have changed little in comparison of earlier chemical data. A gradation of the macrobenthic community was evident as distance from the dam increased,