Purified macrophage cationic proteins were used in functional assays to determine their interactions with the outer membrane and lipopolysaccharide of Pseudomonas aeruginosa. A fluorescent derivative of polymyxin B (dansyl-polymyxin) was found to bind to saturation to purified lipopolysaocharide, with similar affinity for the aminoglycoside supersensitive strain H215 and wild type strain H103 lipopolysaocharide. MCP-1 could displace more dansyl-polymyxin bound to the lipopolysaocharide of both strains, and bound with greater affinity than MCP-2. When whole cells were used, MCPs also displaced bound dansyl-polymyxin. Effects on the outer membrane of whole cells were examined by determining the initial rate of uptake of the hydrophobic fluorescent probe 1-N-phenylnaphthylamine. Uptake was enhanced in the presence of MCPs, indicating permeabilization of the outer membrane. MCP-1 caused maximal uptake of the probe at 40 µg/ml, MCP-2 at 70 µg/ml, and crude extract at only 20 µg/ml. Uptake of the probe was found to be enhanced at add pH, with maximal uptake occurring with only 7.5 µg/ml MCP-1 at pH 6.5. The data suggested that MCPs act to permeabilize the outer membranes of P. aeruginosa in a manner analagous to that defined for other polycationic agents. / Science, Faculty of / Microbiology and Immunology, Department of / Graduate

Following the TLR-dependent initiation phase of acute systemic proinflammatory responses such as sepsis, an adaptive phase represses or activates a specific pattern of gene expression until the inflammation resolves. Here, we used the THP-1 sepsis cell model of bacterial LPS/endotoxin tolerance to show that TLR4- induced miR-146a supports the feed-forward adaptive processes that silence transcription and disrupt translation of acute proinflammatory genes. First, we found that miR-146a regulates a pathway that promotes the binding of transcription repressor RelB to the TNF-α promoter, a step known to precede histone and DNA modifications, which generate facultative heterochromatin to silence acute proinflammatory genes. However, once RelB binding occurred, miR-146a inhibition could not reverse compacted chromatin, and endotoxin tolerance persisted. Second, we observed that miR- 146a regulates a pathway that supports assembly of the translation repressor complex of TNF-α by preventing the interaction of the RNA-binding protein effector Ago2 and RBM4. We also determined that once endotoxin tolerance is established, and specific genes have been reprogrammed, transcription and translation disruption can be reversed only by simultaneously depleting RelB and inhibiting miR-146a. Thus, miR-146a induction supports the TLR4-dependent shift from initiation to gene-specific repression at two levels. Our results also imply that therapies designed to reverse endotoxin tolerance as potential therapies for sepsis should be directed at the transcription and translation pathways of reprogramming.

Chlamydia muridarum and Chlamydia caviae have equivalent growth rates in mouse epithelial cells but only C. muridarum replicates inside mouse macrophages, while C. caviae does not. Macrophages infected with C. muridarum or C. caviae were used to address the hypothesis that the early signaling pathways initiated during infection depend on the fate of chlamydiae in the host cell. Transmission electron microscopy of C. muridarum-infected macrophages showed intact chlamydial elementary bodies and reticulate bodies 2 h postinfection in compact vacuoles. Conversely, in macrophages infected with C. caviae, chlamydiae were observed in large phagocytic vacuoles. Furthermore, C. caviae infections failed to develop into inclusions or produce viable bacteria. Expression of proinflammatory cytokines TNFα, IL-1β and MMP13 was similar in C. caviae- or C. muridarum-infected macrophages at 3 h postinfection, indicating that chlamydial survival is not required for initiation of these responses. IL-1β secretion, dependent on inflammasome activation, occurred in C. caviae-infected macrophages despite no chlamydial growth. Conversely, IFNβ mRNA was observed only in C. muridarum- but not in C. caviae-infected macrophages. These data demonstrate that differential signaling events are initiated during a productive versus nonproductive chlamydial infection in a macrophage.

Lower back pain is the leading cause of disability and is thought to be driven primarily by intervertebral disc degeneration (DD) [1]. Studies suggest DD is associated with increases in inflammatory and catabolic signaling and is characterized by a loss of structural integrity [2, 3]. These degenerative changes ultimately compromise disc mechanics and produce a loss of pressurization. Prior studies have identified increases in pro-inflammatory signaling molecules (IL1β, TNFα, HMGB1) during DD [4-6]. Furthermore, the presence of infiltrating immune cells, such as monocyte/macrophages have also been observed in injured and degenerated discs [7, 8]. Though an increased inflammatory signaling microenvironment is thought to be a hallmark of DD, studies have yet to identify if inflammatory signaling alone is capable of driving degeneration. Further complicating this, the complex mechanical environment and the immune privileged nature of the IVD has left unanswered questions regarding the role that innate immune response plays in propagating disease pathology. In following studies, we evaluated the inflammatory signaling milieu produced by needle puncture injury. Within this study we utilized a connective tissue specific genetic knockout model of a primary inflammatory candidate following injury, the potent damage associated molecular pattern, HMGB1. We identified regional activation of HMGB1 to have roles in tissue structure homeostatic changes and recruiting innate immune cells to the disc following tissue damage. To next answer whether inflammatory biological factors alone are capable of initiating DD, we utilized a connective tissue specific genetic mouse model. In this broad approach of producing an inflammatory microenvironment we identified how prolonged activation of NF-κB, a master transcription factor regulator of inflammatory responses and immune cell recruitment, affects disc integrity. In vivo analyses of the inflammatory disc microenvironment revealed that NF-κB over-activation within IVD cells produced severe degeneration, possibly initiated by an increase in chemotactic proteins and recruitment of inflammatory macrophages. Lastly, directed by findings of significant monocyte/macrophage infiltration following NF-κB over-activation and tissue damage, we examined the response of macrophages to the mechanical hydrostatic pressure (HP) loading present in the IVD microenvironment [9]. Using a novel bioreactor system, we observed macrophages to be mechanoresponsive to physiologically relevant HP loading magnitudes via activation of an inflammatory resolving functional state. We characterized this HP activated macrophage by distinct transcriptome profile changes, increased anti-inflammatory cytokine release, and phagocytic activity. These findings reveal IVD homeostatic and inflammatory functions primarily mediated by HMGB1, both basally and following injury. Further, findings provide evidence that NF-κB signaling is capable of producing severe DD in the absence of a physical injurious initiating event. Within inflammatory over-activation and puncture injury models, we have identified multiple avenues, dictated by inflammatory signaling or tissue damage, in which innate immune cells are recruited to the IVD. Lastly, using a novel HP bioreactor system we have characterized an inflammatory resolving functional macrophage activated via healthy HP loading magnitudes. These findings suggest that a loss of pressurization within the disc may contribute to a lack of inflammatory resolution and frustrated healing.

Tumors induce immune dysfunction through the production of soluble factors that subvert macrophage (Mf) function to favor tumor growth. Previous studies suggested that tumor-induced immune cell dysfunction may be reversible through regimens that disrupt tumor cell suppressor mechanisms and concurrently promote tumoricidal activities. Because the antineoplastic agent paclitaxel (TAXOL) activates Mf function, we studied mechanisms of paclitaxel-mediated cytotoxic and immunostimulatory responses by tumor-induced Mfs. Although tumor-derived factors, including interleukin-10 and transforming growth factor-b1, modulate Mf response to activation signals, paclitaxel partly reverses tumor-induced Mf-mediated suppression of T-cell reactivity through enhanced production of the immunostimulatory cytokine interleukin-12 (IL-12). Concurrently, paclitaxel induces Mf cytotoxic and proinflammatory molecule production, including tumor necrosis factor-a and interleukin-1b. In contrast to its apparent immunotherapeutic effect on Mf populations, paclitaxel's cytostatic mechanisms suppress lymphocyte proliferation and function. We showed that IL-12 can reverse paclitaxel-mediated suppression of T-cell responses in vitro, establishing the foundation for a novel antitumor therapy using paclitaxel in combination with IL-12. We show that the administration of paclitaxel as a chemotherapeutic agent, followed by IL-12 as an immunotherapeutic agent to alleviate paclitaxel-mediated immunosuppression, prolongs survival, reduces tumor progression, and activates immune effector populations in a murine tumor model. These results are the first experimental evidence to suggest that paclitaxel and IL-12 are an effective antitumor modality. Collectively, these studies show that paclitaxel induces multiple antitumor mechanisms that can be enhanced with proper ancillary administration of immunotherapeutic cytokines. / Ph. D.

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<p>High density lipoprotein (HDL) is an independent risk factor for thedevelopment of coronary heart disease. HDL mediated reverse cholesterol transport is a key element responsible for the cardioprotective effects of HDL. In addition HDL exerts other atheroprotective effects in vascular cells. The HDL receptor, scavenger receptor class I type B (SR-BI) derives the process of reverse cholesterol transport, mediates HDL signaling in the vasculature and protects against atherosclerosis. However, the exact atheroprotective mechanisms of HDL and SR-BI are not clearly understood.This thesis starts by characterizing a model of occlusive coronary arteryatherosclerosis, the SR-BI/apolipoprotein E double knockout mice and tests the effectsof phenolic rich pomegranate extract on disease progression. Coronary artery disease in these mice starts at three weeks of age and progresses rapidly leading to sudden death within three to five weeks. The administration of pomegranate extract reduced the extent of coronary artery atherosclerosis possibly via mechanisms that involved alterations in lipid metabolism and reduced inflammation and oxidative stress.The next two chapters aimed to gain better understanding of the atheroprotectiveactions of HDL and SR-BI. Increased macrophage apoptosis is a key event in the development of atherosclerotic plaques. HDL signaling via SR-BI reduced macrophage apoptosis while the lack of macrophage SR-BI was associated with increased macrophage apoptosis and necrotic core areas, features of plaque instability. Next HDL and SR-BI effects on macrophage migration, a key event in atherosclerotic plaque regression, are described. HDL stimulated the migration of macrophages in a manner that was dependent on SR-BI, its adaptor protein, PDZK1, and the G-protein coupled receptor, sphingosine-1-phosphate receptor 1. SR-BI mediated macrophage migration may suggest a potential role of SR-BI in atherosclerotic plaque regression.To expand our view of HDL effects on macrophages we have used proteomics as an approach. HDL treatment of macrophages altered the expression of multiple proteins.Validation experiment confirmed changes in interesting and particularly relevant protein targets in HDL mediated protection against macrophage apoptosis and inflammation and in HDL induced macrophage migration. Follow up experiments will determine their involvement in HDL and SR-BI mediated signaling. Overall this work represents a milestone in understanding the atheroprotective effects of HDL and SR-BI in macrophages.</p> / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

Avec une incidence de 23 300 nouveaux cas en 2020 (ce qui représente 20% de tous les nouveaux cas de cancer chez l'homme) et de 4200 décès (10% de tous les décès par cancer chez l'homme), le cancer de la prostate est le cancer le plus fréquemment diagnostiqué chez l'homme au Canada. Il s'agit d'un cancer hormono-dépendant, traité depuis plus de 70 ans par thérapie anti-androgénique. Le succès des nouvelles immunothérapies basées sur la réactivation des lymphocytes T dans certaines pathologies cancéreuses (vessie, poumon, peau, etc.) et leur échec retentissant dans d'autres (incluant le cancer de la prostate) poussent la communauté scientifique à explorer l'impact de la composante innée du système immunitaire dans la réponse aux immunothérapies. Les tumeurs évoluent en tant qu'écosystèmes complexes, constitués entre autres de cellules tumorales, stromales et de cellules immunitaires. Longtemps considéré comme une tumeur « froide »,caractérisée par une faible infiltration immunitaire et comme cancer peu immunogènique, une population de cellules d'origine myéloïdes, les macrophages, sont depuis quelques années reconnus pour leur rôle majeur dans cet écosystème. Dans un premier temps ils seraient impliqués dans une séquence inflammatoire qui favoriserait le développement de la tumeur, puis, une fois la tumeur installée, les macrophages associés aux tumeurs (Tumor-associated macrophages – TAM) grâce à leur très grande plasticité, favoriseraient un environnement immunosuppresseur, l'angiogenèse, l'invasion de cellules tumorales et la formation de niche pré-métastatiques tout en supprimant la réponse des lymphocytes T cytotoxiques. On parle alors de rééducation du système immunitaire par la tumeur. De plus, de solides évidences ont montré l'implication des macrophages dans la résistance à la chimiothérapie et à la radiothérapie dans le cancer de la prostate Basé sur ces observations, nous avons, dans un premier temps, étudié la rééducation de macrophages, au départ à vocation anti-tumorale, en TAM dans le microenvironnement du cancer de la prostate. Nous avons ainsi pu montrer par que les TAM qui apportent le plus d'information sur la progression de la maladie semblent localisés en dehors de la tumeur, dans le tissu adjacent d'apparence normale. Nous avons ainsi pu mettre en place un nouveau système de culture ex vivo de biopsies de patients et trouvé que des TAM avec un phénotypemixte M1 (CCR7+) /M2 (CD163+) étaient présents en grande quantité dans les cancers de prostate agressifs. Nous avons finalement recréé artificiellement dans un modèle de co-culture une façon innovante d'obtenir des macrophages avec le même phénotype et observé qu'indépendamment de leur phénotype de polarisation de base (M1 ou M2), les cellules de cancer de la prostate changeaient ces macrophages pour leur donner une fonction identique tout en les empêchant d'être rééduqués en macrophage M1. Le séquençage des différents macrophages subvertis nous a permis de déterminer que la ré-éducation des macrophages M2 vers un M1 en présence de cellules cancéreuses était accompagnée d'un changement dans le réseau de chimiokines transcrites vers un profil de chimiokines qui favorisent le recrutement de neutrophiles et le remodelage tissulaire et osseux. ans un second temps, nous avons utilisé les informations sur la localisation spatiale des TAM pour inclure plus de tissu adjacent d'apparence normale dans notre système de culture ex vivo. Nous avons alors évalué l'impact d'un traitement actuellement utilisé en clinique, l'enzalutamide, sur la composante immune du microenvironnement tumoral, plus précisément sur les macrophages. Nous avons pu déterminer que l'observation seule de marqueurs à la surface des macrophages via une dichotomie positive/négative ne permettait pas de visualiser de changements. À l'inverse, l'utilisation de sous-populations basées sur la forte/faible expression de marqueurs (CD163, CCR7, CD206) nous permettait d'observer un changement dans la composition du type de macrophages associé à une augmentation de points de contrôle immunologique à leur surface (PD-L1, PD-L2 et B7-H3). Une forte proportion de macrophages PD-L1+ était associée à un plus faible volume tumoral et un ratio neutrophiles/lymphocytes plus élevé tandis qu'une forte proportion de macrophages B7-H3+ était associée avec la présence de carcinome intracanalaire de la prostate, une forme agressive du cancer de la prostate. Ce projet nous a aussi permis de mettre en exergue l'importance de l'utilisation de la cytométrie de flux multiparamétrique comme technique de phénotypage de ces macrophages dans des échantillons biologiques mais surtout l'utilité de cibler à l'aide du multimarquage des sous-populations définies par l'expression de biomarqueurs spécifiques afin de mieux caractériser cette composante importante du microenvironement tumoral prostatique. Enfin, ce travail permet de mieux comprendre la plasticité des macrophages dans un contexte de cancer de prostate agressif ainsi que l'ontogénie des macrophages pro-tumoraux recrutés ou subvertis. Il permet d'amener une approche nouvelle sur l'obtention de macrophages pro-tumoraux et leur utilisation comme modèle pour mimer in vitro les TAM. / With an incidence of 23,300 new cases in 2020 (representing 20% of all new cancer cases in humans) and of4,200 deaths (10% of all cancer deaths in humans), prostate cancer is the non-cutaneous cancer most frequently diagnosed in men in Canada. It is a hormone-dependent cancer, treated for over 70 years with anti-androgen therapy. The success of new immunotherapies based on the reactivation of T lymphocytes in certain cancers(bladder, lung, skin, etc.) and their failure of checkpoint immunotherapy in prostate cancers and others have prompted further exploration of the impact of the innate component of the immune system in the response to immunotherapies. Tumors evolve as a complex ecosystem, mainly made up of tumor cells, stromal cells, andimmune cells. Long considered as a "cold" tumor characterized by low immune cell infiltration and poorlyimmunogenic, the role of innate immune cells such as macrophages within the prostate tumor ecosystem remainto be fully defined. Initially, macrophages may be involved in an inflammatory sequence which promotes tumor development. Later, tumor-associated macrophages (TAMs) due to their very high plasticity, may play a role inpromoting an immunosuppressive environment, angiogenesis, tumor cell invasion and pre-metastatic niche formation while suppressing the response of cytotoxic T cells. These activities mediated by TAMS which are effectively re-educated o by the tumor. This is consistent with the association of macrophages and resistance to chemotherapy and radiotherapy in prostate cancer. Based on these observations, first, we studied the re-education of macrophages, particularly thoses which first present with an anti-tumor phenotype within the prostate cancer microenvironment. We show that the TAMs,which coincide most strongly with clinical outcomes are in fact located peripherally to the tumor in the adjacent normal tissue. We developed a novel system for ex vivo culture of patient biopsies and observed in aggressive prostate cancers that TAMs with a mixed M1 (CCR7+) / M2 (CD163+) phenotype were present in larger quantities. We modeled in a co-culture system an innovative way to obtain TAMs with this same phenotype and observed that regardless of their starting polarization phenotype (M1 or M2), prostate cancer cells changed these macrophages to give them an identical function while preventing them from being re-educated as M1macrophage. The sequencing of the different subverted macrophages allowed us to determine that the reeducation of M2 macrophages to M1 in the presence of cancer cells was accompanied by a change in the chemokine network transcribed towards a profile of chemokines that promote the recruitment of neutrophils and tissue and bone remodeling. Second, we used the information on the spatial location of the TAMs to include more adjacent, apparently normaltissue in our ex vivo culture system. We then evaluated the impact of a treatment currently used in the clinic,enzalutamide, on the immune composition of the tumor microenvironment, more specifically on TAMs We were able to determine that the observation of markers on the surface of macrophages alone via a dichotomous classification did not permit identification of any induced changes. However, with macrophage subpopulations based on the high/low expression of markers (CD163, CCR7, CD206), we observed a change in the compositionof the type of macrophages associated with an increase in immune checkpoints on their surface (PD-L1, PD-L2and B7-H3). A high proportion of PD-L1+ macrophages was associated with a lower tumor volume and a highneutrophil to lymphocyte ratio with a high proportion of B7-H3+ macrophages was associated with the presenceof intracanal carcinoma of the prostate, an aggressive form of prostate cancer. This project allowed us to highlight the importance of the use of multiparametric flow cytometry as a technique of phenotyping on these macrophages in biological samples but above all the usefulness of targeting, using multiple markers, subpopulations defined by expression of specific biomarkers in order to better characterizethis important component of the tumor microenvironment. Finally, this work allows us to better understand the plasticity of macrophages in a context of aggressive PCa as well as the ontogeny of recruited or subverted protumoral macrophages. It provides a new approach to obtain human pro-tumoral macrophages and an in vitromodel which mimics TAMs.

Exprimé dans les macrophages et les cellules vasculaires musculaires lisses, le récepteur nucléaire hépatique X (LXR) a un rôle méconnu sur la survie ou la mort des cellules vasculaires musculaires lisses humaines, et ce, malgré une découverte récente de son implication dans la survie des macrophages de souris. L'objectif de mon étude est de comparer Peffet du ligand synthétique T0901317 des LXRs sur la viabilité cellulaire et la déstabilisation lysosomale des macrophages et des cellules vasculaires musculaires lisses humaines en présence de cholestérol ou de 27-hydroxycholestérol (27-OH) et de vérifier si la voie de survie Akt est impliquée. Les macrophages humains U937 et les cellules musculaires lisses aortiques humaines (HASMC) ont été incubés en présence ou non de cholestérol ou de 27-OH, suivie ou non d'un traitement avec le ligand T0901317. Nous avons également étudié les effets du ligand synthétique GW101516 du récepteur activé par les proliférateurs des péroxisomes-β/? (PPAR β/?) et du ligand synthétique T090 1317 des LXRs sur la viabilité cellulaire des macrophages seulement en présence ou non de différents oxystérols comme le 7β-hydroxycholestérol (7β-OH), le 7α-hydroxycholestérol (7α-OH), le 7-kétocholestérol (7KC) et le 5β-6β-époxycholestérol (β-Epox). La proportion relative des cellules viables ou mortes ainsi que des cellules présentant une déstabilisation de leurs membranes lysosomales ont été mesurées simultanément par cytométrie à flux. Les résultats nous montrent que dans les macrophages 0937, le cholestérol stimule la survie cellulaire tandis que le 27-OH induit soit la survie (faible concentration) soit une mort cellulaire sans présence de déstabilisation lysosomale (concentration élevée), suggérant une mort par apoptose. Comparativement à l'effet du T090 1317 seul, son effet sur la viabilité en présence de cholestérol ou de 27 -OH est négligeable. Dans les HASMC, le cholestérol induit une mort cellulaire par apoptose sans effet additionnel du T090 1317. Par contre, le 27-OH additionné de T0901317 permet de prévenir l'apoptose. L'induction de la voie de survie dans les macrophages par le cholestérol est associée à la phosphorylation d'Akt sur le résidu Thr308. Aussi, la survie cellulaire induite par LXR est altérée en présence de cholestérol ou en présence de concentration élevée de 27-0H dans les macrophages U937, ce qui n'est pas observé dans les HASMCs. Le 7KC démontre un effet plus fort que les 7β-OH, le 7α-OH ou le p-Epox sur l'induction de la mort cellulaire. L'induction de la survie par les ligands de LXR et de PPAR β/? ne semble pas être inhibée lorsque le macrophage est incubé en présence d' oxystérols autres que le 27-OH.