Overapplication of manure in sensitive watersheds is an issue of increasing environmental concern due to increased nutrient loading and antibiotic release into aquatic environments. Manure is typically surface applied, leaving nutrients and antibiotics vulnerable to loss at the soil surface. Elevated nutrient and antibiotic loading into water bodies can increase the rate of eutrophication and occurrence of antibiotic resistance genes in areas of high animal agriculture production, such as the Chesapeake Bay watershed. Manure injection is a new technology that incorporates manure into the soil with minimal disturbance, and management strategies that reduce manure loss from agricultural fields could prevent the transport of nutrients and antibiotics to sensitive waterways. However, little is known about the efficacy of dry litter injection to decrease nitrogen (N) loss when compared to surface application. Also, there are no studies that determine the effects of injection on antibiotic transport and transformation after manure application. Therefore, this project focused on changes in N cycling, orchardgrass hay yield and quality, and transport and transformation of pirlimycin and cephapirin, two common antibiotics in dairy production, when manure is injected. Subsurface injection eliminated ammonia volatilization and N loss in runoff and increased soil inorganic N when compared to surface application after volatilization, incubation, and rainfall simulation studies. Although these benefits did not translate to higher yields in orchardgrass hay, protein increased when poultry litter was injected, indicating greater N uptake. Injection of dairy manure decreased losses of pirlimycin to levels of the control when compared to surface application. Although, pirlimycin had a slower degradation rate within the injection slit compared to surface application, potentially increasing the amount of time soil microbes are exposed to antibiotics. In an incubation study, pirlimycin concentrations decreased after 7 days, but concentrations increased sharply after 14 days. This indicates that conjugates formed in the liver or digestive tract of dairy cows may revert back to the parent compound after manure application. With increased retention of nutrients and antibiotics, injection could be a best management practice used to reduce the loss of these compounds to the environment while increasing the quality of crops produced. / Ph. D.

The reduced efficacy of antibiotics in treating common infections is one of the most pressing health concerns of the 21st Century. Increasing evidence links the widespread use of antibiotics in livestock production to the transfer of bacteria carrying antibiotic resistance genes to the broader environment. It is therefore critical to understand the persistence and dissemination of resistance in agricultural soils to understand potential threats to consumers. The goal of this large-scale agricultural field experiment was to identify the effects of crop (lettuce, radish) and fertilizer type (inorganic, compost, raw manure) on the incidence and persistence of antibiotic-resistant fecal coliforms, a common family of fecal indicator bacteria used to track the environmental spread of antibiotic resistance. Soil samples were collected eight times over a 120-day period and analyzed for fecal coliforms utlizing a suite of MacConkey agars supplemented with different antibiotics (ceftazidime, clindamycin, erythromycin, sulfamethoxazole, and tetracycline). Given the number of samples with resistant fecal coliform concentrations below the limit of detection, analyses to identify the effects of soil treatment and crop relied on Zero-inflated Poisson Regressions. Antibiotic-resistant culturable fecal coliforms were recoverable from soils across all treatments immediately following application, though persistence throughout the experiment varied by antibiotic. Sulfamethoxazole- and tetracycline-resistant fecal coliforms were nondetectable after Day 1; this was expected, as the cattle supplying the manure amendments were not treated with these antibiotics or similar analogs. Clindamycin- and erythromycin-resistant fecal coliforms were nondetectable after 42 days but rebounded on Day 90 in the soil; both of these drugs were of the same antibiotic class as the ones used to treat the dairy cattle during the manure collection period. Ceftazidime-resistant fecal coliform levels were consistently high throughout the duration of the growing season. No statistical differences were observed between root and aboveground crops. Results suggest that soils amended with raw or composted dairy manure are at risk of contamination with antibiotic resistant fecal coliforms; however, composting decreased the antibiotic resistant fecal coliform levels of the macrolide (erythromycin) and lincosamide (clindamycin) antibiotic classes administered to the dairy cattle (cephapirin and pirlimycin). / Master of Science / The reduced efficacy of antibiotics in treating common infections is one of the most pressing health concerns of the 21st Century. Increasing evidence links the widespread use of antibiotics in livestock production to the transfer of bacteria carrying antibiotic resistance genes to the broader environment. It is therefore critical to understand the persistence and dissemination of resistance in agricultural soils to understand potential threats to consumers. The goal of this large-scale agricultural field experiment was to identify the effects of crop (lettuce, radish) and fertilizer type (inorganic, compost, raw manure) on the incidence and persistence of antibiotic-resistant fecal coliforms, a common family of fecal indicator bacteria used to track the environmental spread of antibiotic resistance. Over the course of 120 days, samples were collected from field plots to identify if there were antibiotic-resistant bacteria (ARBs) in the soil. This study was partially motivated as a means to evaluate the Federal Drug Administration’s Food Modernization Safety Act updated manure treatment guidelines in decreasing potential pathogenic bacteria in soils used to grow vegetables for human consumption. Antibiotic-resistant bacteria were recoverable from soils across all fertilizer types immediately following application, though persistence throughout the experiment varied by antibiotic tested. From the above findings, compost amended soils had greater quantities of total and ceftazidime-resistant bacteria. However, composting did show a significant decrease in the antibiotic-resistant bacteria levels found in the same antibiotic classes, macrolides and lancosimides, that the dairy cattle were treated with at the beginning of this study.

The purpose of this research was to characterize a flushed dairy manure wastewater and to develop the kinetic and stoichiometric parameters associated with nitrogen removal from the wastewater, as well as to demonstrate experimental and simulated nitrogen removal from the wastewater. The characterization showed that all the wastewaters had carbon to nitrogen ratios large enough for biological nitrogen removal. Analysis of carbon to phosphorus ratios showed that enough carbon is available for phosphorus removal but enough may not be available for both nitrogen and phosphorous removal in anaerobically pretreated wastewater. In addition, kinetic and stoichiometric parameters were determined for the biological nitrogen removal in sequencing batch reactors for the dairy manure wastewater. Results showed that many parameters are similar to those of municipal wastewater treatment systems. This characterization and the derived kinetic and stoichiometric parameters provided some of the information necessary for development of a nitrogen removal process in a sequencing batch reactor. Lab scale treatment of a 1:2 dilution of the anaerobically pretreated wastewater was demonstrated. Treatment was able to achieve between 89 and 93% removal of soluble inorganic nitrogen as well as up to 98% removal of biodegradable soluble and colloidal COD. In addition, a solids removal efficiency of between 79 and 94% was achieved. The lab scale treatment study demonstrated that sequencing batch reactors are capable of achieving high nitrogen removal on wastewaters with the carbon to nitrogen ratios of the dairy manure wastewater. Model simulations of the treatment process were used to develop a sensitivity analysis of the reactor feed configuration as well as the kinetic and stoichiometric parameters. The analysis of the feed configuration demonstrated the advantage of decreasing the amount of feed that is fed in the last feed period so that the effluent nitrate will be minimized. The analysis indicated that the autotrophic growth rate is one of the most important parameters to measure while error in the heterotrophic decay or yield values can lead to miscalculations of oxygen required for treatment. / Master of Science

Manure injection is an alternative manure application method that places manure in subsurface bands rather than spreading it evenly across the soil surface as done with the typical broadcasting method. The reduced exposure of manure to air under injection can lead to greater N retention when compared to broadcasting, but also alters the spatial distribution of manure. This altered spatial distribution of manure could alter soil nutrient dynamics and crop growth; however, literature exploring this subject is limited. Therefore, this dissertation aimed to compare soil nitrate and active carbon levels between manure injection and broadcasting, assess the spatial distribution of soil N under injection, and determine if the subsurface bands under injection cause differential crop growth. An 8-site on-farm study was conducted comparing spring manure applications under corn silage. This study found that soil NO3-N was the same under injection and broadcasting but did alter the spatial distribution of soil NO3-N as it was consistently elevated in the injection band compared to between bands. No differences in active carbon were observed, even when measuring the injection band directly. This finding calls into question the usefulness of measuring active carbon in manured systems. Corn silage yields were only significantly increased at 1 of 8 sites, and this occurred at the one site that did not receive a sidedress N application, which suggests that N was not limiting at the other seven sites. A small-scale research plot study examining fall manure applications under small grains found similar results to the previous study. No consistent differences in soil NO3-N were observed between injected, broadcast, and control plots; however, soil NO3-N was greater in the injection band compared to between, a difference that persisted for two months after manure application. Evidence of soil NO3-N leaching was observed in one study year, suggesting soil NO3-N leaching under fall manure applications should be examined. No consistent differences in soil active carbon were observed, either between manure application methods or injection bands. Furthermore, the alteration in soil NO3-N under injection did not lead to differential small grain growth. A 24 site on-farm study was conducted to assess potential differential growth of small grains following manure injection. This study found that soil NO3-N in the manure injection band compared to between bands was significantly increased in 13 of 24 sites and was on average 137% greater in-band at the 0-15 cm depth. This difference did not persist through small grain silage harvest as only 1 of 24 sites showed a significant difference in-band. Small grain maturity did not show any difference in 2021 due to late planting dates, but some differences were observed in the injection band compared to between bands one month after planting. As with soil NO3-N, these differences did not persist through silage harvest. Small grain forage quality parameters were not different in-band compared to between-band at harvest, while DM yield only differed in 3 of 24 sites, with 2 of those 3 sites being under wheat. The data presented in this dissertation indicates that manure injection causes differential soil NO3-N levels from banding. Accurately measuring soil NO3-N levels under injection was difficult due to the injection band being difficult to fully sample and suggests injected soil NO3-N levels were underestimated. No meaningful changes in crop growth were observed due to banding or different manure application methods. / Doctor of Philosophy / Manure injection is a more environmentally friendly method of manure application when compared to traditional surface broadcasting. While research is clear on the environmental benefits of manure injection, the agronomic benefits of injection are unclear. Therefore, this research aimed to compare soil nitrogen and crop response to manure injection. Manure injection did not result in consistently increased corn or small grain yields when compared to manure broadcasting. Soil nitrate was not typically altered between manure application methods, but this could have been due to our soil sampling method not sampling enough of the manure injection band. Manure injection did result in soil nitrate being concentrated in the area manure was injected. The elevated soil nitrate in the area manure was injected typically persisted 1-2 months after manure application but didn't persist to the end of the growing season. This early season increase in soil nitrate concentrations in the manure injection area did not result in differential small grain maturity in both a small-scale research plot study and a 24 site on-farm study. Three of 24 sites studied showed increased small grain yield when comparing the area manure was injected compared between injection bands, with two of these three sites being under wheat. This suggests small grain yield response to manure injection bands could be species dependent.

Antibiotic resistance is a growing human health threat, making infections more difficult to treat and increasing fatalities from and cost of treatment of associated diseases. The rise of multidrug resistant pathogens threatens a return to the pre-antibiotic era where even the most common infections may be impossible to treat. It is estimated that the majority of global antibiotic use, and use in the U.S., is dedicated towards livestock, where they are used to promote growth, treat, or prevent disease. Given that exposure to antibiotics selects for antibiotic resistant bacteria (ARBs) and can stimulate the horizontal transfer of their associated antibiotic resistance genes (ARGs), it is important to examine livestock operations as a reservoir of resistance. Correspondingly, there is growing interest in identifying how agricultural practices can limit the potential for spread of antibiotic resistance through the "farm to fork continuum," starting with antibiotic use practices, manure management and land application and ending with the spread of ARBs and ARGs present onto edible crops and serving as a route of exposure to consumers. This study focused specifically on the effect of composting on the prevalence of ARBs and ARGs in cattle manure. Three composting trials were performed: small-scale, heat-controlled, and large-scale. The small-scale composting trial compared dairy and beef manures, with or without antibiotic treatment (treated beef cattle received chlortetracycline, sulfamethazine, and tylosin while treated dairy cattle received cephapirin and pirlimycin), subject to either static or turned composting. The heat-controlled composting trial examined only dairy manure, with or without antibiotic treatment, subject to static composting, but using external heat tape applied to the composting tumblers to extend the duration of the thermophilic (>55°C) temperature range. The large-scale composting trial examined dairy manure, with or without antibiotic treatment, subject to static composting at a much larger scale that is more realistic to typical farm practices. Samples were analyzed to assess phenotypic resistance using the Kirby Bauer disk diffusion method and by diluting and plating onto antibiotic-supplemented agar. Genetic markers of resistance were also assessed using quantitative polymerase chain reaction (qPCR) to quantify sul1 and tet(W) ARGs; metagenomic DNA sequencing and analysis were also performed to assess and compare total ARG abundance and types across all samples. Results indicate that composting can enrich indicators of phenotypic and genetic resistance traits to certain antibiotics, but that most ARGs are successfully attenuated during composting, as evidenced by the metagenomic sequencing. Maintaining thermophilic composting temperatures for adequate time is necessary for the effective elimination of enteric bacteria. This study suggests that indicator bacteria that survive composting tend to be more resistant than those in the original raw manure; however, extending the thermophilic stage of composting, as was done in the heat-controlled trial, can reduce target indicator bacteria below detection limits. Of the two ARGs specifically quantified via qPCR, prior administration of antibiotics to cattle only had a significant impact on tet(W). There was not an obvious difference in the final antibiotic resistance profiles in the finished beef versus dairy manure composts according to metagenomics analysis. Based on these results, composting is promising as a method of attenuating ARGs, but further research is necessary to examine in depth all of the complex interactions that occur during the composting process to maximize performance. If not applied appropriately, e.g., if time and temperature guidelines are not enforced, then there is potential that composting could exacerbate the spread of certain types of antibiotic resistance. / Master of Science / Antibiotics are drugs that are used to treat bacterial infections by killing the bacteria that cause the infection. Bacterial infections now exist that are resistant to several antibiotics; which are extremely difficult and costly to treat. Many antibiotics are used in the agriculture industry where they are used to promote growth, treat, or prevent disease in livestock animals. The antibiotics may then cause an increase in antibiotic resistance in bacteria by encouraging changes to the DNA of the bacteria which allow them to survive in the presence of antibiotics that would normally kill them. These DNA segments are called antibiotic resistance genes. Once developed, bacteria can share resistance genes among themselves, allowing for single bacteria that can resist several types of antibiotics. For this reason, it is important to see if it is possible to prevent the spread of antibiotic resistance from animal agriculture to people. One way that people could be affected would be if produce were exposed to resistant bacteria when grown in soil that had been fertilized with manure or compost. This study looks at the impact of composting on the presence and amount of antibiotic resistance genes in composted cattle manure. Three composting trials were performed: small-scale, heat-controlled, and large-scale. The small-scale composting trial compared dairy and beef manures, with or without antibiotic treatment, with or without regular turning during composting. The heat-controlled composting trial examined only dairy manure, with or without antibiotic treatment, without regular turning during composting, but using external heat to maintain high temperatures. The large-scale composting trial examined dairy manure, with or without antibiotic treatment, without regular turning during composting, but at a larger scale that is more realistic to how composting is actually performed on farms. Antibiotic resistance of compost bacteria was tested by growing bacteria on nutrient-dense plates containing antibiotic disks and measuring how much each antibiotic prevented the growth of the bacteria, in terms of the diameter about each disk where bacteria did not grow. Individual target resistance genes were measured throughout the study by using a method called qPCR. Metagenomic analysis was performed to identify all of the genes, especially resistance genes, in each of the samples. Results v show that composting may increase antibiotic resistance in bacteria that survive the composting process, but that most resistance genes are themselves reduced. The key to successful composting is maintaining high temperatures for as long as possible; this is necessary to kill off infectious bacteria. Extending the high temperature (>55°C) phase of composting is a potential method for improving the effectiveness of composting in eliminating pathogens and destroying resistance genes. Results were not significantly affected by whether antibiotics were given to the cattle and were not different between dairy or beef cattle. Based on these results, composting is a promising method of reducing resistance genes in composted manure, but further research is necessary to maximize performance. If not performed correctly, composting could have the opposite effect and be detrimental.

The major constraints to food production in West Africa are related to the lack of suitable lands. Consequently, farmers incorporate organic amendments and wastewater to improve their yields. Within some limits, such wastes enhance soil fertility and can improve its physical properties. However, the advantages of using organic waste as fertilizer and soil amendment should be assessed with possible environmental and toxicological impacts due to the potential presence of heavy metals. The objective of this study was to assess the effect of organic amendments on heavy metal distribution in soils and vegetables in market gardens in Senegal. Organic amendments and soils samples were collected from four sites in eastern and southern Senegal. Samples were analyzed for physicochemical properties including particle size, total heavy metals, carbon content, nutrients, and pH. A sequential extraction procedure was conducted to determine heavy metal sinks. Results showed that sites were sandy in nature, low to medium in organic carbon content (8300 to 36600 mg kg-1), and had pH ranging from 5 to 7.9. The sequential extraction procedure showed that metals were distributed in the more stable soil fractions: Fe-Mn oxide, organic and residual. The highest soil metal concentrations in soils were found in Pikine and Rufisque sites. Plant samples were collected from these two sites and analyzed for total metal content. Results showed that all metal concentrations in soils, organic amendments, and vegetables were within the safe limits proposed by the World Health Organization, with the exception of Cd, Pb and Zn levels in vegetables. / Master of Science / Application of composted organic wastes and untreated wastewater to urban vegetable garden soils is raising serious concerns about possible health risks associated with the consumption of these vegetables particularly with regard to the concentrations of heavy metals in their edible portions. Therefore, this study focused on the evaluation of heavy metal concentrations in soils, organic amendments and vegetables from local gardens of Senegal and also, the determination of metal sinks in soil phases via a sequential extraction procedure (SEP). Soils, organic matter and vegetable concentrations of cadmium, cobalt, chromium, copper, manganese, nickel, lead and zinc were analyzed for total metals. Results from the SEP showed that metals in soils were located on the stable soil phases and would not be easily released unless environmental conditions changed (e.g. more acidic pH or anoxic conditions). Data from total metal analyses revealed that all metal concentrations in soil, organic amendments, and vegetables were within the safe limits proposed by the World Health Organization (WHO) with the exception of Cd, Pb and Zn levels in vegetables.

With the expansion of the Tillamook Creamery, in Tillamook Oregon, to double or more its cheese production, the demand for milk presents an economic opportunity for the member dairies of the Tillamook County Creamery Association. Before area dairies can expand their herd size to increase milk production for the creamery, the problem of manure waste management and pollution control must be solved. This study considers the technical and economic feasibility of developing a centralized waste treatment and methane generation facility to treat manure generated by Tillamook County dairies. A computer program modeling animal waste anaerobic digester design served as the basis for generating cost and production estimates for several hypothetical scenarios assuming input data specific to the Tillamook situation. A follow up study was also made to determine the variability of the potential ultimate methane yield of manures from Tillamook dairies. This study indicates that the proposed system is technically feasible. The study estimates that a comprehensive treatment system could cost dairymen from $70 to $100 per cow per year to start, but the economic feasibility improves as more manure is treated and more dairies participate. A full scale system has the potential to break even economically from the sale of electricity produced by a 5 megawatt methane powered generator. With the marketing of treated solids as a high grade fertilizer the system could gross a return of $1 to $75 per cow per year, depending on the scenario. / Graduation date: 1992

Thesis (doctoral)--Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, 2005. / Thesis documentation sheet inserted. Appendix consists of reproductions of 5 published papers and manuscripts, four co-authored with others. Includes bibliographical references. Issued also electronically via World Wide Web in PDF format; online version lacks appendix of papers; map in online version displays in color.

Orientador: Jorge de Lucas Junior / Banca: Beno Wendling / Banca: João Antônio Galbiatti / Banca: Regina Maria Quintão Lana / Banca: Elias Nascentes Borges / Resumo: A necessidade de ampliação de atitudes que levam o meio rural a buscar a sustentabilidade e a implantação do uso da biodigestão anaeróbia tem sido incentivada por se tratar de um mecanismo de desenvolvimento limpo que alia a importância do tratamento dos resíduos agropecuários (dejetos), geração de energia (biogás) e biofertilizante. Desenvolveu-se um estudo em que se focou a hipótese que a implantação de sistema de tratamento de dejetos, com o uso de biodigestor anaeróbio e o aproveitamento dos seus produtos, o biofertilizante, poderia substituir a adubação mineral nitrogenada de cobertura no cultivo de forrageiras e que essa prática poderia reduzir o custo de adubação e promover ganhos adicionais com a geração de energia elétrica e ganhos ambientais, com a redução de emissão de metano e produção do biogás. Utilizou-se como ferramenta para embasar a hipótese três cultivos de forrageira, um de sorgo e dois de milho. Observou-se que a aplicação de biofertilizante e composto bovino não promoveram aumentos significativos na produtividade das culturas. Paralelamente desenvolveu-se a implantação de um biodigestor de manta de PVC flexível que serviu de parâmetros para a simulação da viabilidade econômica de um sistema de criação de bovino para 100 vacas leiteiras e um sistema de criação de suínos de ciclo completo para 500 matrizes. Conclui-se que projetos que contemplam o princípio da interdisciplinaridade podem auxiliar de maneira mais efetiva na tomada de decisão de implantação de soluções ambientalmente corretas que podem ser também economicamente viáveis. / Abstract: Because of the need for expansion of attitudes that lead to rural areas to seek sustainability. The introduction of the use of anaerobic digestion has been encouraged by the case of a clean development mechanism that combines the importance of processing of agricultural waste (manure), generation of energy (biogas) and biofertilizer. Has developed a study that focused on the hypothesis that the deployment system for the treatment of waste using anaerobic biodigest and use products, the biofertilizer, could replace mineral nitrogen fertilization in coverage the cultivation of fodder and that this practice could reduce the cost of fertilizer and promote additional gains in the generation of electric energy and environmental gains, such as reducing the emission of methane. It was used as a tool for the hypothesis based three of forage crops, one the sorghum and two maize. It was observed that the application of biofertilizer and compost cattle did not promote significant increases in productivity of crops. Developed in parallel to implement a blanket biodigest of flexible PVC that served as parameters for the simulation of the economic viability of a system for creating and veal to 100 dairy cows and a pig breeding cycle of full matrix for 500. It is concluded that projects that include the principle of interdisciplinarity can assist more effectively in decision making for the deployment of environmentally correct solutions that can be economically viable. / Doutor

This diploma thesis describes the actual situation of the manure spreader machines of the organic manure and it compares the characteristics of these machines from different manufacturers. And then this thesis designs the driving system for cutter mechanism, for the manure conveyor and the manure spreading device including the details. Drawings are in the attachment.