In 2014, the Child Protective Services received 3.6 million referrals alleging child abuse and neglect, of which, 702,000 children were victims of abuse and neglect and an estimated 1,580 children died due to maltreatment. In addition to this appalling toll, the welfare effects of child victimization are substantial. Evidence suggests that compared to demographically similar adults who were non-victims, adults with documented histories of maltreatment are more likely to engage in criminal behavior; have adverse mental and physical health problems such as depression, addiction and post-traumatic stress disorder; and have lower levels of education and earnings. These essays contribute toward the understanding of the consequences of two very distinctive policies – mandatory arrest and medical marijuana laws – and their impact on child maltreatment. An important and controversial question in criminal justice policy concerns whether aggressive sanctions, such as mandatory arrest policies, serve as effective deterrents to familial violence. Chapter 1 provides a theoretical framework that models child abuse in which I allow for a strategic interaction between the child and his or her abuser. The comparative statics yield clear predictions of the impact of sanctions on child maltreatment – as the cost and probability of external interventions rise, the probability of violence falls. I follow this theoretical analysis with an empirical investigation of the impact of mandatory arrest policies on child victimization. I find a statistically significant and positive relationship between states that have implemented mandatory arrest laws and reported child maltreatment rates. This may seem surprising; however there are two explanations for the results. The likely explanation is that reporting of maltreatment increased in states mandating arrest; alternatively, recidivism may have increased in these states. Evidence from the OLS estimates for the reporting of abuse and child fatality rates (a proxy for the true incidence of child abuse), demonstrates that the increase in maltreatment is not due to recidivism but, in fact, more people reporting abuse to the police and Child Protective Services. The most important result that emerges from the data, however, is that while reported abuse increases in states with mandatory arrest laws, the true incidence of maltreatment actually falls. The ultimate goal of this paper is to stimulate further theoretical and empirical research that focuses on child abuse and prevention, thus enhancing an understanding of how sanctions influence child victimization. The next chapter looks at one potential risk factor for child maltreatment –marijuana use and liberalization –using evidence from medical marijuana laws (MMLs). Chapter 2 begins by extending the current MML-crime literature by providing a comprehensive evaluation of the impact of MMLs implemented at the state level on reported child victimization rates. I show that specific modes of medical marijuana regulation differentially influence the magnitude of reported incidences of child abuse, a finding which sheds new light on the current literature. More specifically, using fixed effects analysis applied to data from the National Child Abuse and Neglect Database System (NCANDS) and the Uniform Crime Reports (UCR), I show that states that allow for home cultivation in addition to decriminalizing its use see a further increase in the magnitude of reported incidences of child maltreatment rates. Since completing my dissertation, I have continued to investigate into issues that have implications for both theory and practice in my field. To that extent, I plan to analyze the slowly developing public sphere –a platform where culture and social change rely on both media and conversation.

The primary goal of this study was to investigate the awareness and prevalence of Spice and K2 usage among a population of college students, as well as the demographics of such users. The study also sought to determine whether or not students prefer these products over natural cannabis, in addition to examining the most popular methods of obtainment and the most commonly reported side effects of K2 and Spice usage. Participants consisted of 643 undergraduate students enrolled at the University of North Texas during the fall 2011 semester. Findings indicate that while students exhibit a relatively high awareness of K2 and Spice, usage of these products is not a prevalent occurrence. Implications of the findings are discussed.

abstract: Background: Hash oil, a cannabis preparation that contains ultra-high concentrations of tetrahydrocannabinol (THC), is quickly gaining popularity in the United States. Some evidence suggests that hash oil might produce greater intoxication and more severe negative effects than marijuana. This study examined whether the subjective effects of hash oil are more extreme than the subjective effects of marijuana and whether frequency of hash oil use is associated with the subjective effects of marijuana and hash oil. Method: Past-year cannabis users (n = 1,268) were recruited online to complete a questionnaire about the subjective effects of cannabis. Participants who reported past-year use of both hash oil and marijuana (n = 574) rated subjective effects of each type of cannabis in the following positive and negative domains: positive affect, cognitive enhancement, negative affect, cognitive impairment, physiological effects, reduced consciousness, and psychotic-like experiences. Results: Results of within-person comparisons showed that hash oil was rated as producing lesser positive effects (Hash oil: M = 4.53, Marijuana: M = 5.55, t = 14.67, p < .001) than marijuana. Negative effects of hash oil were minimal for the full sample (n = 574) and for both frequent and infrequent hash oil users. In general, the frequency of hash oil use was not associated with the subjective effects of marijuana but more frequent hash oil use was associated with rating hash oil as producing greater positive effects ( = 0.28, t = 6.86, p < .001) and lesser negative effects ( = -0.16, t = -3.83, p < .001). Findings were unchanged after controlling for sex, medical cannabis use, and frequency of marijuana use. Conclusions: Hash oil produced lesser positive effects than marijuana. Negative effects of hash oil were minimal, suggesting that extreme negative effects may be unlikely for experienced cannabis users. / Dissertation/Thesis / Masters Thesis Psychology 2019

As forensic scientists, we are required to accurately test for certain substances. This may necessitate the use of presumptive tests such as the One Step Multi-Drug Screen Test Card with the Integrated iCup®/iCup®A.D . There are many circumstances where these tests are applicable, such as job-related drug testing, custody and parole cases. An immunoassay, or presumptive test, is designed to give the analyst, even a non-scientific analyst, a general idea of what substance(s) are present in the individuals system, so that he or she is able to more accurately confirm what substances, if any, the individual may have used or consumed. The goal of the validation study of the One Step Multi-Drug Screen Test Card with the Integrated iCup®/iCup®A.D was to determine the sensitivity of various THC containing compounds (delta-9-THC, 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta9-THC, and 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC) as well as different solutions containing Synthetic Cannabinoids at various concentrations and stored at different temperatures. Each of the drugs were tested below, at and above the cut-off of the drug stated by the manufacturer. The cut-off of 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta9-THC, given by the manufacturer, was 50 ng/mL. For every trial that was conducted, the drug could be detected in the iCup® at this limit of detection of 50 ng/mL, except when the drug had been stored in the freezer for approximately two months prior to use. Delta-9-THC was given a cut-off of 15,000 ng/mL, which is a high concentration, especially when these assays are used in custodial cases and job-related drug tests, where living individuals are providing a fresh specimen. The concentrations of delta-9-THC and 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC were higher than the cut-off for a positive result of 11-nor-9-carboxy-delta9-THC, but it was tested below the 15,000 ng/mL cut-off for delta-9-THC, established by the manufacturer. After these adjustments were made, both delta-9-THC and 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC could be detected in a range between 1,500 ng/mL and 5,000 ng/mL. While 1,500 ng/mL is still high for a living specimen, it is substantially lower than 15,000 ng/mL. Analyzing the higher concentration of the synthetic cannabinoid working stock solution of 10,000 ng/mL, positive results were detected at 3,500 ng/mL and 5,000 ng/mL. There were eight cannabinoids, metabolites, and synthetic cannabinoids found in the working stock solution: (1) THC, (2) 11-Hyroxy-delta-9-THC, (3) 11-nor-9-Carboxy-delta-9-THC, (4) AB-FUBINACA, (5) AB-FUBINACA Met. 3, (6) AB-FUBINACA Met. 2a, (7) AB-PINACA-blood, and (8) AB-PINACA Pentatonic Acid metabolite. As the concentrations decreased, a positive result was not produced. Ultimately, the final conclusions of all the testing was that the One Step Multi-Drug Screen Test Card with the Integrated iCup®/iCup®A.D is not as sensitive when it comes to the synthetic cannabinoids, the primary compound present in marijuana (delta-9-THC), and the active metabolite of marijuana (11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC). In order to gain more accurate results using this presumptive test, the sensitivity of the iCup® for a detection of delta-9-THC and 11-hydroxy-delta-9-THC at a lower concentration should be done. By, doing this, an analyst can be more confident when deciding what confirmatory test to use based on what substances are present in a given sample.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / Marijuana use is associated with many health risks, but is increasingly becoming more accepted; thus, use rates, as well as negative consequences, are growing. There is a need to better understand marijuana use behaviors so as to reduce its negative effects. The current study sought to test the viability of applying urgency theory to marijuana use behaviors by examining several pathways among negative urgency, marijuana-related attentional bias, coping motives, and marijuana use behaviors, across men and women. Participants (n=120, mean age= 26.61 years (SD=9.28), 50% women, 63% White/Caucasian) were recruited from the Indianapolis, IN area to participate in a cross-sectional study in which they completed self-report measures and a visual-probe computer task with eye-tracking following negative mood induction. Regression analyses and the PROCESS macro were used to examine study hypotheses. Several pathways were supported: Negative urgency was significantly associated with coping motives (β=0.24, p=0.01), coping motives were significantly associated with marijuana use behaviors (ΔR2= 0.55, p<0.01), and a serial mediation model was supported, in which the relationship between negative urgency and negative marijuana consequences was mediated by coping motives and then by marijuana use frequency (c’= 0.20, 95%CI= 0.06 to 0.50). Competing models were examined and not supported. There were no statistically significant pathways involving the attentional bias measures; although there was a pattern of small effect sizes demonstrating that attentional biases may relate to marijuana use behaviors in men and not in women. Findings from the current study serve as preliminary support for applying urgency theory to marijuana use behaviors. Overall, these findings suggest that negative urgency is a distal risk factor that influences the development of other, more proximal, predictors of marijuana use and negative marijuana consequences. Future studies should examine the time order of these relationships longitudinally to replicate and provide more confidence in the causal order of the model supported in the present study.

Indiana University-Purdue University Indianapolis (IUPUI) / This dissertation examines three vulnerable groups’ health and healthcare access. The first research uses the 2002–2011 Health and Retirement Study data to estimate the effects of adult children’s employment on their caregiving to aging parents. State monthly unemployment rates are used as an instrument for employment. Results show that being employed affects neither male nor female adult children’s caregiving to aging parents significantly. The findings imply that the total amount of informal care provided by adult children might not be affected by changes in labor market participation trends of the two genders. The second research studies the labor impact of Colorado and Washington’s passage of recreational marijuana laws in December 2012. The difference-in-differences method is applied on the 2010–2013 National Survey on Drug Use and Health state estimates and the 2008–2013 Survey of Income and Program Participation data to estimate legalization’s effects on employment. The results show that legalizing recreational marijuana increases marijuana use and reduces the number of weeks employed in a given month by 0.090 among those aged 21 to 25. The laws’ labor effects are not significant on those aged 26 and above. To reduce legalization’s negative effects on employment, states may consider raising the minimum legal age for recreational marijuana use. The third research examines disparities in suicidal behaviors between indigenous and non-indigenous adolescents. The study analyzes the 2001–2013 Youth Risk Behavior Survey data. Oaxaca decomposition is applied to detect sources of disparities in suicide consideration, planning, and attempts. The study finds that the disparities in suicidal behaviors can be explained by differences in suicidal factors’ prevalence and effect sizes between the two groups. Suicidal behavior disparities might be reduced by protecting male indigenous adolescents from sexual abuse and depression, reducing female indigenous adolescents’ substance use, as well as involving male indigenous adolescents in sports teams.

In most countries marijuana is recognized as an illegal drug. Yet, many young individuals in contemporary societies have used the drug in some shape or form. It often occurs in the company of peers. Realizing that marijuana-use is illegal in Sweden, what motives do young adults in Sweden have to use marijuana and how can we understand their choices to smoke?The aim of this study is to conclude and develop further understanding on marijuana use by young adults. Furthermore, we aim to examine factors such as peer-pressure and expectations and their impact on a young adult's marijuana-use. This study also attempts to clarify the social processes and norms in which the individuals may or may not base their identity and behavior on. This is done by applying Goffman’s theoretical framework combined with Howard Becker’s theories regarding deviant behavior and marijuana use and social control.The study is based on eight semi-structured interviews with male participants in the ages ranging from 21-27, which are defined as young adults. They all originate from similar demographic locations in southern Sweden. The initial attempt of marijuana use most often occurs alongside friends, whilst continued use most frequently emerges as a result of peer-pressure by group members. The ability to recognize peer-pressure is a social competence which requires an individual to realise the social mechanics and dynamics of a group. This in turn suggests that the individuals adapt to the expectations that reside within a deviant group. The main conclusion suggests that young adults use marijuana, to a certain extent, because of personal motives. However, these motives appear to stem from the individual’s ability to create their identity in order to adapt to the norms found in their adhering group.

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Abstract available in the American Journal of Obstetrics & Gynecology.