Externalities caused by human transformations in ecosystems structure and functioning has been threatening environmental quality and social welfare in all socioecological systems, including coastal zones. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an instrument widely used to evaluate the feasibility of developments and projects that can potentially provoke changes in biophysical-human environment. However, EIA generic and fragmented approach has not properly been considering people and environmental particularities, such processes and benefits to society, in decision making. Ecosystem-Based Management recently emerged as a strategy that can qualify EIA, by embracing ecosystem processes and services (ES), human dimensions, social engagement and Local, Traditional and Scientific Ecological Knowledge. Using a case study of a contested Port expansion in São Sebastião, São Paulo, Brazil, that endangered the sustainability of an adjacent bay (Araçá Bay), we selected analytical categories comprising different stakeholders, ecosystem services and disturbances scenarios to understand the role of EBM in coastal EIA. We presumed that stakeholders with deeper relationships with the place could provide more comprehensive assessments about changes in the availability of main local ES, as a result of greater sense of place, access to different sources of knowledge and opportunities to social participation. Also, an EBM approach would provide a more robust, i.e., a wider and more integrated assessment of impacts in the provision of the ES than the Environmental Impact Study (EIS) of the port expansion. We performed in-depth interviews with four different groups of stakeholders and analyzed their speeches with discourse analysis and statistical inquiries to assess ES scores of occurrences in current (Two-way ANOVA) and disturbances scenarios (Repeated measures ANOVA and PERMANOVA), besides their main argumentation patterns. We compared these results with the port expansion EIS to assert to robustness of the method. The groups had different perceptions from each other, which depended on the scenario and ES evaluated. We corroborated the hypotheses: groups\' closer, deeper and more engaged relationships with the place had more comprehensive assessments of changes in the ES; and stakeholders perceptions reflected trade-offs of the local urban conflicts, providing a higher variety and more integrated assessments of impacts than the Environmental Impact Study of the Port expansion. The diversity of forms of knowledge, behaviors and functions, in temporal and spatial scales, proved to be valuable for the groups\' assessments of resource and the territory, and the choice of the analytical categories was fundamental to consolidate the understanding of local socioecological processes. We concluded that the method tested was efficient and respected the intrinsic variability of coastal zones and its function as a socioecological system to assert that EBM has a great potential to improve the effectiveness of EIA. / As externalidades causadas por transformações humanas na estrutura e funcionamento dos ecossistemas têm ameaçado a qualidade ambiental e o bem-estar social em todos os sistemas socioecológicos, incluindo as zonas costeiras. A Avaliação de Impacto Ambiental (AIA) é um instrumento amplamente utilizado para avaliar a viabilidade de empreendimentos e projetos que podem provocar potenciais mudanças no ambiente biofísico-humano. No entanto, a abordagem genérica e fragmentada da AIA não tem devidamente considerado as pessoas e as particularidades ambientais, como os processos e valores sociais, na tomada de decisões. A Abordagem Baseada em Ecossistemas (ABE) surgiu recentemente como uma estratégia que pode qualificar a AIA, abrangendo processos e serviços ecossistêmicos (SE), dimensões humanas, engajamento social e Conhecimento Ecológico Local, Tradicional e Científico. Utilizando um estudo de caso de uma contestada ampliação portuária em São Sebastião, São Paulo, que ameaçou a sustentabilidade de uma baía adjacente (a Baía de Araçá), selecionamos categorias analíticas que compreendem diferentes stakeholders (ou principais atores), serviços ecossistêmicos e cenários de perturbações para entender o papel da ABE na AIA costeira. Presumimos que os stakeholders com relações mais profundas com o local poderiam fornecer avaliações mais abrangentes sobre mudanças na disponibilidade dos principais SE locais, como resultado de maior senso de pertencimento, acesso a diferentes fontes de conhecimento e oportunidades para participar socialmente. Além disso, assumimos que a ABE proporcionaria uma AIA mais robusta, ou seja, com uma perspectiva mais ampla e mais integrada dos impactos na provisão dos SE do que Estudo de Impacto Ambiental da expansão portuária. Realizamos entrevistas em profundidade com quatro grupos diferentes de stakeholders e analisamos o conteúdo por meio de análise de discurso e testes estatísticos para avaliar as ocorrências dos SE no cenário atual (ANOVA de duas vias) e nos cenários de perturbações (ANOVA de medidas repetidas e PERMANOVA), além dos principais padrões de argumentação dos stakeholders. Comparamos esses resultados com o Estudo de Impacto Ambiental da ampliação do Porto para afirmar a robustez do método. Os grupos apresentaram diferentes percepções uns dos outros, o que dependeu do cenário e do SE avaliado. Nós corroboramos as hipóteses: grupos com relações mais próximas, mais profundas e mais comprometidas com o local tiveram avaliações mais abrangentes das mudanças dos SE; e as percepções dos stakeholders refletiram os trade-offs (ou qualidade, aspecto) dos conflitos urbanos locais, proporcionando avaliações mais variadas e integradas de impactos do que o Estudo de Impacto Ambiental da expansão portuária. A diversidade de formas de conhecimento, comportamentos e funções, em escalas temporais e espaciais, se provaram valiosas para avaliações dos grupos sobre os recursos e o território, e a escolha das categorias analíticas foi fundamental para consolidar a compreensão dos processos socioecológicos locais. Concluímos que o método testado foi eficiente e respeitou a variabilidade intrínseca das zonas costeiras e sua função como um sistema socioecológico, o que afirmou que a ABE tem um grande potencial para melhorar a eficácia da AIA.

Externalities caused by human transformations in ecosystems structure and functioning has been threatening environmental quality and social welfare in all socioecological systems, including coastal zones. Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) is an instrument widely used to evaluate the feasibility of developments and projects that can potentially provoke changes in biophysical-human environment. However, EIA generic and fragmented approach has not properly been considering people and environmental particularities, such processes and benefits to society, in decision making. Ecosystem-Based Management recently emerged as a strategy that can qualify EIA, by embracing ecosystem processes and services (ES), human dimensions, social engagement and Local, Traditional and Scientific Ecological Knowledge. Using a case study of a contested Port expansion in São Sebastião, São Paulo, Brazil, that endangered the sustainability of an adjacent bay (Araçá Bay), we selected analytical categories comprising different stakeholders, ecosystem services and disturbances scenarios to understand the role of EBM in coastal EIA. We presumed that stakeholders with deeper relationships with the place could provide more comprehensive assessments about changes in the availability of main local ES, as a result of greater sense of place, access to different sources of knowledge and opportunities to social participation. Also, an EBM approach would provide a more robust, i.e., a wider and more integrated assessment of impacts in the provision of the ES than the Environmental Impact Study (EIS) of the port expansion. We performed in-depth interviews with four different groups of stakeholders and analyzed their speeches with discourse analysis and statistical inquiries to assess ES scores of occurrences in current (Two-way ANOVA) and disturbances scenarios (Repeated measures ANOVA and PERMANOVA), besides their main argumentation patterns. We compared these results with the port expansion EIS to assert to robustness of the method. The groups had different perceptions from each other, which depended on the scenario and ES evaluated. We corroborated the hypotheses: groups\' closer, deeper and more engaged relationships with the place had more comprehensive assessments of changes in the ES; and stakeholders perceptions reflected trade-offs of the local urban conflicts, providing a higher variety and more integrated assessments of impacts than the Environmental Impact Study of the Port expansion. The diversity of forms of knowledge, behaviors and functions, in temporal and spatial scales, proved to be valuable for the groups\' assessments of resource and the territory, and the choice of the analytical categories was fundamental to consolidate the understanding of local socioecological processes. We concluded that the method tested was efficient and respected the intrinsic variability of coastal zones and its function as a socioecological system to assert that EBM has a great potential to improve the effectiveness of EIA. / As externalidades causadas por transformações humanas na estrutura e funcionamento dos ecossistemas têm ameaçado a qualidade ambiental e o bem-estar social em todos os sistemas socioecológicos, incluindo as zonas costeiras. A Avaliação de Impacto Ambiental (AIA) é um instrumento amplamente utilizado para avaliar a viabilidade de empreendimentos e projetos que podem provocar potenciais mudanças no ambiente biofísico-humano. No entanto, a abordagem genérica e fragmentada da AIA não tem devidamente considerado as pessoas e as particularidades ambientais, como os processos e valores sociais, na tomada de decisões. A Abordagem Baseada em Ecossistemas (ABE) surgiu recentemente como uma estratégia que pode qualificar a AIA, abrangendo processos e serviços ecossistêmicos (SE), dimensões humanas, engajamento social e Conhecimento Ecológico Local, Tradicional e Científico. Utilizando um estudo de caso de uma contestada ampliação portuária em São Sebastião, São Paulo, que ameaçou a sustentabilidade de uma baía adjacente (a Baía de Araçá), selecionamos categorias analíticas que compreendem diferentes stakeholders (ou principais atores), serviços ecossistêmicos e cenários de perturbações para entender o papel da ABE na AIA costeira. Presumimos que os stakeholders com relações mais profundas com o local poderiam fornecer avaliações mais abrangentes sobre mudanças na disponibilidade dos principais SE locais, como resultado de maior senso de pertencimento, acesso a diferentes fontes de conhecimento e oportunidades para participar socialmente. Além disso, assumimos que a ABE proporcionaria uma AIA mais robusta, ou seja, com uma perspectiva mais ampla e mais integrada dos impactos na provisão dos SE do que Estudo de Impacto Ambiental da expansão portuária. Realizamos entrevistas em profundidade com quatro grupos diferentes de stakeholders e analisamos o conteúdo por meio de análise de discurso e testes estatísticos para avaliar as ocorrências dos SE no cenário atual (ANOVA de duas vias) e nos cenários de perturbações (ANOVA de medidas repetidas e PERMANOVA), além dos principais padrões de argumentação dos stakeholders. Comparamos esses resultados com o Estudo de Impacto Ambiental da ampliação do Porto para afirmar a robustez do método. Os grupos apresentaram diferentes percepções uns dos outros, o que dependeu do cenário e do SE avaliado. Nós corroboramos as hipóteses: grupos com relações mais próximas, mais profundas e mais comprometidas com o local tiveram avaliações mais abrangentes das mudanças dos SE; e as percepções dos stakeholders refletiram os trade-offs (ou qualidade, aspecto) dos conflitos urbanos locais, proporcionando avaliações mais variadas e integradas de impactos do que o Estudo de Impacto Ambiental da expansão portuária. A diversidade de formas de conhecimento, comportamentos e funções, em escalas temporais e espaciais, se provaram valiosas para avaliações dos grupos sobre os recursos e o território, e a escolha das categorias analíticas foi fundamental para consolidar a compreensão dos processos socioecológicos locais. Concluímos que o método testado foi eficiente e respeitou a variabilidade intrínseca das zonas costeiras e sua função como um sistema socioecológico, o que afirmou que a ABE tem um grande potencial para melhorar a eficácia da AIA.

Submitted by Eunice Novais (enovais@uepg.br) on 2018-09-06T18:06:00Z No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) Fernanda Silva.pdf: 8612783 bytes, checksum: 75134e09c730581d4c96c8bf2b470456 (MD5) / Made available in DSpace on 2018-09-06T18:06:00Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 2 license_rdf: 811 bytes, checksum: e39d27027a6cc9cb039ad269a5db8e34 (MD5) Fernanda Silva.pdf: 8612783 bytes, checksum: 75134e09c730581d4c96c8bf2b470456 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2018-02-26 / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior / O turismo em ambientes marinhos é uma atividade crescente a cada ano, principalmente em regiões de litoral atrativo. Uma das principais práticas dos turistas refere-se à oferta de alimentação suplementar para peixes, tais como pão, biscoitos e outros alimentos artificiais na dieta desses indivíduos. Por um lado, essa atividade pode ajudar na sensibilização ambiental, mas também resulta em impactos negativos pouco compreendidos. Sendo assim, o objetivo deste estudo foi analisar os efeitos da alimentação por turistas na dieta do peixe Haemulon aurolineatum em recifes coralíneos do Rio Grande do Norte. Duas áreas foram escolhidas para a coleta dos espécimes: uma com alimentação suplementar ofertada por turistas – Parrachos de Maracajaú, e outra com alimentação natural – Parrachos de Rio do Fogo. Foram tomadas as medidas de comprimento, peso, índice hepatossomático (IHS) e fator de condição (K) das duas áreas amostrais. Para confirmação da classe etária dos indivíduos, foram contados os anéis de crescimento presentes no otólito Sagitta. Os itens consumidos foram identificados na menor categoria taxonômica possível e os resultados foram comparados através de NMDS e ANOSIM. Também foi analisado o teor de amido do conteúdo estomacal. O teste estatístico t apontou diferença para o comprimento dos indivíduos, possivelmente pela alta ingestão de alimentos. Entretanto os testes apontaram equivalência para o peso, IHS e K. A análise de NMDS diferenciou os itens consumidos para as duas regiões amostradas e a análise de similaridade confirmou que o turismo reflete em modificações na composição da dieta. O conteúdo estomacal dos indivíduos coletados na região com alimentação suplementar apresentou 48,73% de amido em sua composição. Considerando a dieta natural dessa espécie, a ingestão de carboidratos pode interferir no acúmulo energético individual. Adicionalmente, as presas habituais de H. aurolineatum não estão sendo capturadas, o que pode acarretar desequilíbrio entre as populações. Nossos resultados procuram contribuir para o manejo de áreas recifais, com redução do volume e controle do tipo de alimento ofertado, para que o turismo seja de fato, uma atividade sustentável. / Tourism in marine environments is growing every year, especially in attractive coastal regions. One of the regular practices of tourists refers to supplementary food provisioning for fish, such as bread, biscuits and other artificial foods in the diet of these individuals. On the one hand, this activity can assist in fish conservation and environmental awareness, but on the other hand it results in negative impacts little understood so far. Thus, the objective of this study was to analyze the effects of food offer by tourists in the diet of the fish Haemulon aurolineatum in coral reefs of Rio Grande do Norte. Two areas were chosen for collection: one with supplementary feeding offered by tourists - Parrachos de Maracajau, and another with natural food - Parrachos do Rio do Fogo. Measures of length, weight, hepatosomatic index (HSI) and condition factor (K) of the two sampling areas were taken. To confirm the age class of individuals, the growth rings present in the otolith Sagitta were counted. The consumed items were identified to the smallest taxonomic category possible and the results were compared through NMDS and ANOSIM. The starch content of the stomach contents has also been analyzed. The t test pointed out differences in individuals’ length, possibly due to high food intake. However, the t tests pointed equivalent weight, HSI and K for both areas. The NMDS differentiated the items consumed for the two sampled regions and the analysis of similarity confirmed that tourism reflects on modifications in diet composition. The stomach contents of supplementary fed individuals presented 48.73% starch in its composition. Considering the natural diet of this species, carbohydrate intake can interfere with individual energy accumulation. Additionally, H. aurolineatum habitual preys are not being captured, which may lead to imbalance among the populations. Our results try to contribute to the management of reef areas, with a reduction in the volume and control of the food type being offered, so that tourism can become in fact a sustainable activity.

It is widely agreed that marine protected areas (MPAs), which can provide long-term protection to marine ecosystems of high ecological, economic, social and cultural value, will only be successful if they are designed and implemented with the involvement and support of stakeholders and other key actors. Putting a collaborative approach into practice is not easy, though. Appropriate governance structures, which formalize and facilitate information sharing, consensus building, and decision making are necessary, but insufficient. Also needed is a shared interest on the part of all groups – beginning with MPA agencies themselves – to work together, notwithstanding the often considerable investments of time, effort and material resources that are required. Perhaps most fundamentally, effective collaboration depends on trust, and strong interpersonal relationships. Consistent with a global trend in favour of more inclusive and participatory approaches to protected area planning and management, Canada’s federal government has set out to develop a national system of MPAs in cooperation with a broad array of interest groups, including marine resource users and other stakeholders; government actors with responsibilities and authorities for oceans activities that relate to the objectives of MPAs; and Aboriginal communities and organizations within whose territories MPAs are situated. The overarching goal of the study was to understand the extent to which federal MPAs in British Columbia (BC), Canada, are established collaboratively, and what is required to overcome obstacles to successful collaboration. This goal was pursued through an in-depth investigation of two MPA planning processes in BC: the proposed Race Rocks MPA, at the southern tip of Vancouver Island; and the Gwaii Haanas National Marine Conservation Area Reserve and Haida Heritage Site, in the Haida Gwaii archipelago. Data for the study was collected through semi-structured interviews; documentary research; and a participant questionnaire. The study found that, while MPA agencies engaged with outside parties in a variety of ways to plan Race Rocks and Gwaii Haanas, these processes fell short of expectations for genuine collaboration in a number of respects. In the case of Race Rocks, this has resulted in the failure (for a second time) to designate the MPA. The dissertation illuminates the challenges and shortcomings that were encountered in both cases, and offers practical solutions to address them. / Graduate / 0366 / pipakins@gmail.com

Precise and accurate species abundance and distribution data are important for making effective ecological conservation and management decisions. These data are often challenging to obtain, especially in marine environments where the logistical and technical difficulties of working underwater can limit the precision and accuracy of detection. The chosen survey methodology, along with the study design, will determine the extent to which species’ spatial or temporal variability in abundance and distribution may be investigated. Different observational methods may yield different results. I explore how the methodology used to collect sample measurements of fish abundance and diversity in marine environments can influence your understanding of the focal population and the effectiveness of spatial marine conservation measures. I compare inshore rockfish abundance and fish diversity estimates between paired towed video and baited video surveys and between dive and baited video surveys conducted on temperate rocky-reefs in the nearshore Northeast Pacific on the coast of British Columbia, Canada. I test if the baited video survey data yield equivalent insight to those data derived from the methods commonly used in shallow (dive surveys) and deeper waters (towed video surveys). Paired dive and baited video surveys took place inside and outside of spatial marine conservation areas designated for inshore rockfish called Rockfish Conservation Areas. I test whether the baited video data generate the same conclusions about Rockfish Conservation Area effectiveness as data derived from the dive surveys, and whether the Rockfish Conservation Areas have greater inshore rockfish abundance and fish diversity than paired locations outside the conservation areas. I find similar inshore rockfish abundance estimates between towed and baited video, but baited video surveys detect a greater number of unique species than the towed video surveys. The dive surveys detect greater inshore rockfish abundance and fish diversity than the baited video surveys, but the baited video data yield equivalent insight on Rockfish Conservation Area effectiveness to data derived from the dive surveys. I find little evidence that inshore rockfish recovery is influenced by Rockfish Conservation Area protection. When data were combined across all sites sampled, Rockfish Conservation Areas did not produce more inshore rockfish, bigger rockfish, or greater fish diversity than paired sites outside of Rockfish Conservation Areas, whether measured using a dive survey or a baited video survey. However, I did observe a positive effect of Rockfish Conservation Area protection for some of the individual Rockfish Conservation Areas surveyed that rated as having a high Conservation Score. This suggests certain Rockfish Conservation Areas may be effective conservation areas for inshore rockfish recovery. The differences I observe in inshore rockfish abundance and fish diversity between the paired surveys reveals the methodology used can influence species abundance and diversity estimates. Baited video surveys are a low cost and effort methodology that can be used to examine inshore rockfish abundance and fish diversity over rocky reefs from nearshore waters down to depths greater than 20 m, and to monitor the effectiveness of spatial marine conservation areas. / Graduate

The marine conservation organization Sea Shepherd is most known for its radical direct action, e. g., against whale poaching. This thesis examines the campaign “Operation Dolphin Bycatch,” coordinated by the French branch of the NGO, through discourse analysis and interviews with Sea Shepherd France (SSF) members. Dolphins serve as the flagship species of the campaign. They allow SSF to criticize non-selective fishing methods that cause the accidental killing of dolphins in the Bay of Biscay. With expressions from war and religion, SSF portrays the French government and most fishermen as enemies of the dolphins’ wellbeing that pursue self-interested profit values. It is found that SSF positions itself as radical more in its worldview than its approaches. The ecological philosophy of biocentrism contradicts the anthropocentrism that dominates society. In this campaign, the NGO uses “outsider” tactics: It exerts pressure on French policy-makers with footage of dolphin bycatch and takes great care to maintain international legitimacy by staying within legal boundaries. / L’organisation de conservation du milieu marin Sea Shepherd est surtout connue pour ses méthodes d’action directe radicale, par exemple contre le braconnage des baleines. Ce mémoire de master examine la campagne « Opération Dolphin Bycatch », qui est coordonnée par la branche française de l’ONG, à travers une analyse multimodale du discours et des entretiens avec des bénévoles de Sea Shepherd France (SSF). Les dauphins sont l’espèce porte-drapeau de la campagne. Ils permettent ainsi à SSF de critiquer les méthodes de pêche non sélectives qui provoquent la mort accidentelle de dauphins dans le Golfe de Gascogne. Avec des expressions provenant des champs lexicaux de la guerre et de la religion, SSF dépeint le gouvernement français et la plupart des pêcheurs comme poursuivant des valeurs lucratives égoïstes à l’encontre du bien-être des dauphins. Il s’avère que SSF se positionne comme radicale dans sa vision du monde plus que dans ses approches. Sa philosophie biocentrée de l’environnement contredit l’anthropocentrisme qui domine la société. Dans cette campagne, l’ONG utilise des tactiques « extérieures », c’est-à-dire qu’elle exerce une pression sur les décideurs politiques français avec des images de prises accessoires de dauphins et prend soin de maintenir une légitimité internationale en restant dans un cadre légal. / Die Meeresschutzorganisation Sea Shepherd ist vor allem für ihre radikalen „Direct Action“-Methoden bekannt, beispielsweise gegen Wal-Wilderei. Diese Arbeit untersucht die Kampagne „Operation Dolphin Bycatch“, die vom französischen Zweig der NGO koordiniert wird, durch multimodale Diskursanalyse und Interviews mit Mitgliedern von Sea Shepherd Frankreich (SSF). Delfine dienen als Flaggschiff-Art der Kampagne. Sie ermöglichen es SSF, die nicht-selektiven Fischereimethoden zu kritisieren, die das versehentliche Töten von Delfinen im Golf von Biskaya verursachen. Mit Begriffen aus Krieg und Religion schreibt SSF der französischen Regierung und den meisten Fischerleuten eigennützige Profitinteressen zu und stellt sie als Feinde des Wohlergehens der Delfine dar. Es zeigt sich, dass SSF eher in ihrer Weltanschauung als in ihren Ansätzen eine radikale Position beansprucht. Ihre biozentrische Umwelt-Philosophie steht im Widerspruch zum Anthropozentrismus, der in der Gesellschaft vorherrscht. Bei dieser Kampagne bedient sich die NGO „Außenseiter“-Taktiken: Sie übt Druck auf französische Politiker*innen aus, indem sie Filmaufnahmen von Delfin-Beifang zeigt, und achtet durch das Einhalten gesetzlicher Vorgaben darauf, internationale Legitimität zu wahren.

Cuba’s expansive coral reefs and mangrove habitats provide a variety of ecosystem services to coastal communities including nursery grounds for fisheries, shoreline stability, and storm and flood protection. While Cuba’s coastal habitats are some of the most preserved in the Caribbean, they are under increasing threat of degradation from the impacts of climate change, increased tourism, and coastal development. With the goal of sustainable development, Cubans need to assess the storm and flood protection benefits these coastal habitats provide, and integrate this information into future expansion and management plans within the National Protected Areas System (SNAP). Using the open source software, Integrated Valuation on Ecosystem Services and Tradeoffs (InVEST), a national-scale coastal vulnerability model was developed to provide quantitative estimates of coastal exposure and the protective role of coastal habitats during storm events. This model integrates storm information with bathymetry and coastline geomorphology, coupled with coastal habitat data to estimate the influence of these habitats in reducing vulnerability to storms and flooding. By combining these results with human population data, the model identifies where coastal communities are most vulnerable to wave energy and storm surge, and where coral reefs and mangroves provide the most protection by reducing impacts to these communities. We classify these regions as areas of conservation priority. We observed that fifty percent of the areas identified as areas of conservation priority lack any form of environmental protection. We recommend including these key habitats within the National System of Protected Areas. This will permit decision makers to more effectively concentrate restoration and conservation efforts in areas where people and natural resources will experience greater benefit from valuable ecological services.

Areas beyond national jurisdiction or the high seas are vital areas for biodiversity and marine resources in our oceans, yet the protection and conservation of this global resource is insufficient due to absence of international agreement concerning the matter. Therefore, the new Biodiversity Beyond National Jurisdiction (BBNJ) agreement was recently agreed upon, with the objective of ensuring protection for these resources.This study endeavours to assess the applicability of Ostrom's and Stern'sprinciples, as the theoretical frameworks for sustainable governance of global commons, on the BBNJ agreement. By employing deductive reasoning, this study compares and contrasts the principles proposed by Ostrom and Stern, using them as lenses to examine the agreement. As a case study, this research investigates the utilization of international agreements as integral components of international law for the governance of shared resources. Conducted as a qualitative desk study, the analysis involved scrutinizing the BBNJ agreement to identify keywords and themes associated with eachprinciple. The study’s findings reveal that Ostrom's and Stern's principles exhibit varying degrees of applicability. Despite sharing certain similarities, they embody distinct foundational approaches, with Stern's principles demonstrating better applicability to the governance of global commons. The study suggests that the BBNJ agreement holds the potential to govern the global commons in a sustainable manner.

Marine populations worldwide are in decline due to anthropogenic effects. Spatial management via marine reserves may be an effective conservation method for many species, but the requisite theory is still underdeveloped. Integrodifference equation (IDE) models can be used to determine the critical domain size required for persistence and provide a modelling framework suitable for many marine populations. Here, we develop a novel spatially implicit approximation for the proportion of individuals lost outside the reserve areas which consistently outperforms the most common approximation. We examine how results using this approximation compare to the existing IDE results on the critical domain size for populations in a single reserve, in a network of reserves, in the presence of alongshore currents, and in structured populations. We find that the approximation consistently provides results which are in close agreement with those of an IDE model with the advantage of being simpler to convey to a biological audience while providing insights into the significance of certain model components. We also design a stochastic individual based model (IBM) to explore the probability of extinction for a population within a reserve area. We use our spatially implicit approximation to estimate the proportion of individuals which disperse outside the reserve area. We then use this approximation to obtain results on extinction using two different approaches, which we can compare to the baseline IBM; the first approach is based on the Central Limit Theorem and provides efficient simulation results, and the second modifies a simple Galton-Watson branching process to include loss outside the reserve area. We find that this spatially implicit approximation is also effective in obtaining results similar to those produced by the IBM in the presence of both demographic and environmental variability. Overall, this provides a set of complimentary methods for predicting the reserve area required to sustain a population in the presence of strong fishing pressure in the surrounding waters.

Offshore wind farm (OWF) construction in the UK is progressing rapidly alongside increasing spatial pressures on marine ecosystems and social and economic activities. A need for increased protection of habitats, species and ecological processes that support environmental and economic benefits is being met by designation of marine protected areas (MPAs). Mitigation and spatial planning solutions are required to enable protection of vital ecological habitats, features and processes and support sustainable economic development. A potential solution is to co-locate OWFs and MPAs. This study uses a multi-disciplinary approach to examine if evidence on the environmental effects of existing OWFs and associated effects on fishing activity (as an existing resource use) benefits MPA goals. Through a systematic review and meta-analyses of existing data, knowledge of OWF effects on species abundance and economic effects on fishing were identified as key evidence gaps. The ecological evidence need was approached through a case study of ecological effects of North Hoyle OWF, North Wales, UK, using existing pre and post-construction monitoring data, as well as primary baited remote underwater video data, collected 5 years later (8 years post-construction). Results suggested habitat and species recovered to a stable state that showed some community differences to pre-construction conditions. The presence of OWF monopiles is likely to have increased existing heterogeneity of substratum and increased opportunities for scavenging species. Species benefitting and disadvantaged by habitat provided within the OWF reflected meta-analyses trends. Extended baseline monitoring to provide confident identification of natural levels of variation in sediment and fauna was lacking. Analysis of fishing activity and landings before and after OWF construction in three UK case study regions approached effects on resource users. Fishing activity in the three case study areas showed broad scale similarity to national trends. Small-scale activity patterns indicated greater reductions in mobile (towed) fishing gear effort near to operating OWFs than in static gear activity (using pots or static nets). Semi-structured interviews conducted with fishermen in each region revealed loss of ground and disruption as negative effects from OWFs, in addition to existing pressures. Benefits including habitat creation and species augmentation, as well as reduction of cumulative lost ground, were identified by fishermen from co-location of MPAs and OWFs. Ecological effects of OWFs suggested benefits from habitat creation, species augmentation and potential for protection of sandbank habitats between monopiles. Mitigation requirements were identified to maximise these potential benefits to an MPA network.