Although more than 1300 marine reserves have already been established around the world, they still present a relatively new tool for environmental conservation and fisheries management. In accordance with this new approach towards marine protection, conservationists currently call for rapid establishment of a reserve network, which would encompass 10% to 30% of the oceans. Representative habitats from coastal areas as well as high seas would be included. Such a network should serve as a haven for marine species, ensuring their sustainability and aiding them to recover from fishery pressure. Furthermore, reserves are expected to enhance yields to the fishing industry through spillover and larval export. The paper attempts to determine, whether and under which conditions do marine reserves bring net benefits to economies.

The study of place has been a component of the recreation literature for about three decades. Most researchers have sought to either describe the cognitive and evaluative beliefs (place meaning) recreational visitors ascribe to a setting or identify the intensity of the human-place bond (place attachment). Few have attempted to qualitatively investigate the meanings visitors ascribe to a setting and quantitatively measure the intensity of their attachment to that setting within the same study design. Nor has there been much work aimed at understanding these concepts in marine environments. In this dissertation, I began to fill these gaps in the literature through the use of a three- phase multiple-method research design. In the first phase, I conducted 20 interviews to identify the meanings that recreational visitors ascribe to the Great Barrier Reef Marine Park (GBRMP) and to further explore how the symbolic interactionist framework can be used to understand place meanings. Ten place meaning themes emerged from the informants' statements. The second phase used 34 items developed from the 10 meaning themes that emerged from the previous interviews and a place attachment scale to explore how recreational visitors' attachment to a marine resource was reflected in their depictions of why the resource is meaningful. Three hundred and twenty-four individuals, living in Queensland, Australia, responded to a postal/email survey conducted during January and February of 2009. The results indicated that all the meanings recreational visitors ascribe to the GBRMP provide context for the attachment they hold for the setting, however particular sets of meanings are important in differentiating between attachment intensity levels. The final phase, which also used the postal/email survey described, identified how place attachment affected the relationship, identified by Stern et al. (1995), between the recreational visitors' environmental world view (EWV) and attitudes toward negative impacts on the reef ecosystem. I found that place attachment partially mediated the relationship between EWV and attitudes toward impacts. The conclusions presented in this dissertation filled in gaps in the recreation literature's understanding of place while providing further insight into how place meaning influences other constructs important to natural resource management.

Abstract As an island state, Taiwan has developed a delicately close relationship with the resources in the ocean around her. The Pescadores, or commonly known as Penghu, is an archipelago located in the middle of the Taiwan Strait to the southwest of the Taiwan Proper. The waters here are crystal clear with every element there should be to form the best fishing grounds. For example, there are endless intertidal zones rich in crustaceans and sea snails and clams for baby fish of all kinds to feed on, and the coral forests in deeper waters offer perfect shelters for schools and schools of adult fish. However, in recent years, due to over-fishing, the oceanic environment has been rapidly and severely damaged, resources decayed. To retain diversity and vitality for oceanic resources and to make fishing here a permanently maintainable business, establishing oceanic nature preserves is a necessary, urgent thing to do. Nevertheless, restrictions and limitations that would come along with the establishment of nature preserves could very probably cause conflicts in between the fishermen, local public, experts in this field, as well as the local government. The Goal of this research is to derive effective and efficient principles of conflict management. By applying the conflict management mechanism the author offers to the rules of oceanic nature preserves, we should hope that the preserves in Penghu will set an example for the others to come in Taiwan. This research is basically a qualitative study. The¡§structured interview method¡¨ is employed to standardize questions for interviewees to answer or choose to answer. By providing interviewees with the framework of whole idea and asking them to answer similar questions, we can explore deeper into the core of the research. The interviewees include executives of Penghu County Chinwan Marine Protected Area, other officials concerned, experts that care much about Penghu¡¦s oceanic environment, nature protection group members, representatives of the two nearby villages, and the villagers. Besides that, this research also covers some depth study as to the uniqueness and variety of the coral communities in this region. This research has revealed that all people interviewed consider the establishment of the preserve site very important and essential to the preservation of both fishery resources and biological diversity. Out of the seventeen interviewees, thirteen (that is, nearly 80% of the people involved) do not think that the preserve site will do any harm to their interests, while the others do. The biggest conflicts are that the local people in the fishing business are worried about their careers being threatened, that local people have not felt well respected and participated in this public matter, and that there is quite some misunderstanding as to the policy regarding the preserve site. However, the villagers do wish to work this out through such ways of communication as holding hearings, villagers¡¦ meetings, or carrying our surveys. According to the press, this case, being a pre-conflict environmental policy issue in nature, has been experiencing quite some resistance. However, this research reveals that the negative powers are not so strong as reported; the desired balance can be reached when all factors involved have been properly taken into account. For example, by developing eco-tourism, local people can turn their fishing careers into scuba diving coaching, boat rental, or the like to retain their economical competitiveness. Besides, the government can help assemble a community development committee and a patrol squad for the villagers to spontaneously join in. This way, the government and local people can develop a partnership toward mutual profits instead of suffering from conflicts.

The Dongsha Islands, a group of remote islands under Taiwan's jurisdiction, consist of Dongsha Atoll (the only atoll in Taiwan) and North Vereker Bank and South Vereker Bank (two coral reef groups). Dongsha Island is the only terrestrial portion of the islands. Owing to its location in the northern part of the South China Sea, the physical and chemical conditions fostered the formerly abundant marine and coastal biota of this region. This area is one of Taiwan's traditional fishing grounds. The islands are also located near the major sea route connecting the Pacific and Indian Oceans. However, due to improper fishing practices and the development of fishing facilities, the marine biota and habitats have been depleted in recent decades to the point of being threatened with extinction. These improper and excessive human activities/uses within the waters of the Dongsha Islands are threatening its ecosystems and resources through unsustainable exploitation and depletion. The current situation of the Dongsha Islands illustrates the difficulties of protecting the marine ecosystems of remote islands where the presence of law enforcement is not particularly in evidence. Even if the Kaohsiung City Government were to designate the Dongsha Islands a ¡§no-fishing zone¡¨, further steps, i.e., the planning and management of marine protected areas for example, would still require in-depth considerations and discussion. This study focuses on several aspects, including the planning process of developing the management plan, the legal and administrative framework of the management plan and associated action plans, and a model outline for developing the management plan and action plans. Following the results/guidelines are suggestions for further study.

Abstract There are three marine protected or conservation areas (MPA or MCA) at Southern Taiwan that are enriched with marine resources. These sites are assigned by the order of government administration. The Kenting National Park was first established in 1984. In 1987, the Executive Yuan also passed two more coastal sites, Jien-sen and Jiou-peng, as marine protected areas. The government has adopted the strategy and policy on the marine coastal sites but it has lack of clarity on the administration and authority to manage the site since their establishment. The local residences also are not pleased with the site selection for setting up the marine protected area because of the problems of economic need and their livelihood influences from the protected site restrictions. These have caused the inefficiency of implementation on the management of the marine protected sites to protect and conserve the marine resources.The present studies research to understand both the Houbihood pilot protected site in Kenting National Park and the Jen-sen coastal protected area for a better operation mechanism with regard to managing the conservation sites. The research employs the literature search, interview to local residences and scientists to obtain information about the operation and management of marine protected site. These include the issues of site establishment, zoning and process, law requirement and implementation, public inquiry and participation, committee organization and site management. The obtained survey results were made to compare with the successful management scheme and organization of the Basin Head marine conservation site, Prince Edward Island Province of Canada. The Basin Head Conservation Committee serves a good example for setting up marine conservation areas in Southern Taiwan. The establishment of marine protected area requires background data information including the law and policy, organization structure, manpower and resources for the justification of implementation and its operation in order to achieving the protection and conservation at the marine environment. The present studies report that the government administration must have a unique guidelines and criteria for the national use as well the local application. The government shall draw a long term planning and strategy for law enforcement and practical cooperation scheme between the government, local organization including non-government organization and the assistance of Taiwan Coastguard Administration. The fundamental issues include the survey and collection of background data for the environmental and ecological data information at the marine protected site.

Global, national and local institutions are adopting coastal management strategies that attempt to facilitate conservation without undermining socioeconomic development. Recently, two global conservation trends have developed that attempt to address prevailing issues of poverty and environmental degradation – community-based conservation and conservation networks. Using a political ecology lens, I examine the intersection of these trends in the local context of Pemba Island. Through fieldwork, textual analysis and literature reviews, I investigate how a community-based conservation association has been impacted by the establishment of a marine conservation network. In theory, community-based conservation and marine conservation networks offer solutions to the failures of fortress conservation and sectoral management. In practice, this case study demonstrates that these lofty objectives are difficult to achieve. These findings contribute to emerging research into the social dynamics of scaling up marine conservation areas and suggest that the success of marine conservation networks hinges on meaningful community participation.

I examined the dynamics of an endangered population of northern bottlenose whales over a 23-year period during which its prime habitat, the Gully canyon, was made a Marine Protected Area (MPA). Using mark-recapture techniques on photo-identifications I estimate a current population of 116 animals (95% CI=101-130). The population size and sex-ratio have remained stable since before the MPA designation suggesting this population is persisting. I used photo-identifications and high definition videography to examine the social organization of northern bottlenose whales, including behavioural synchrony. Relationships are highly variable; most associations are short-lived, but there are also long-term preferred associations lasting from several years (female/immature dyads) to over a decade (mature male dyads). I found little, if any, division of the social community. Synchronized breathing is common, precise, and appears to vary with behaivoural context. Although speculative, synchronized breathing might play a role the maintenance of general social relationships within this population.

Coral reefs and the ecological, social, and economic benefits that they provide are seriously endangered by a colossal number of threats. This study was conducted in marine protected area (MPA) in the Mexican Caribbean. The purpose of this study was to provide results that can be directly applied by MPA managers to improve coral reef conservation and management. Characterization of four coral reef sites and stressors described in a proxy map were integrated into a comparative resilience assessment. Sites ranged from 16.5% to 3.5% coral cover and 47.5% to 12% macroalgal cover. Stressor distribution and intensity was highest near the Puerto Morelos town center and followed general water current patterns. Fishing, tourism, and pollution were identified as major stressors on which management can positively influence. The results of this study provide managers throughout the Caribbean a managerial tool chest to improve management efficacy and bolster conservation initiatives.

In 2010, Thailand’s Andaman Sea experienced unprecedented mass coral bleaching. Between 50% to 90% of corals suffered bleaching along the Andaman coast both inside and outside Marine Protected Areas (MPAs). This dissertation examines the implications of climate change for these coral reef ecosystems in MPAs. The study explores the potential and effectiveness of conservation management strategies using MPAs and resilience building to address this global challenge in the context of Thailand. This dissertation examines how resilience-based management can be enhanced in Thailand’s MPAs on the Andaman coast in the face of climate change. In particular, the research: 1) Identifies resilient reefs in the Andaman bioregion, 2) Assesses coral reef resilience in a specific MPA to identify management interventions, 3) Examines current MPA coverage and suggests strategies to improve coverage, and 4) Illustrates the potential of social media to enhance coral reef resilience in Thailand. The study employs a mixed methods approach consisting of literature review, a review of available secondary data, workshops, field surveys and social media data tracking. Twenty-two resilience indicators were selected and used to assess reefs at 62 survey stations across the eastern Andaman bioregion. A review of existing Andaman MPA coverage, spacing and design was conducted to determine the gaps and opportunities for expanding the MPA network. A science communication campaign focused on the importance of parrotfish in saving coral reefs using online social media was launched and monitored. The study sites were classified into high (28), moderate (23) and low (11) resilience based on resilience scores. The results provide the first comprehensive resilience assessment of coral reefs in the Andaman sea. The identified resilient reef areas serve as cornerstones in developing a more resilient MPA network and provide a conservation-based platform for long-term marine spatial planning in the eastern Andaman region. Resilience scores for Mu Ko Surin National Park were analyzed in more detail to provide an example of the process for undertaking a finer scaled analysis with a localized weighting system. Management interventions were developed accordingly including strict protection areas and recovery zone designations aiming to improve coral resilience. Expanding MPA coverage and developing MPA networks is an urgent priority for Thailand to reach the CBD target of at least 10% of marine and coastal habitat protected by 2020. This study suggests three important areas for consideration: 1) Expanding MPAs by prioritizing resilient areas and incorporating other types of conservation areas; 2) A ‘bottom-up’ approach that incorporates adaptive and flexible governance; and 3) Implement biological corridors to address key shortcomings of current MPAs. The findings from the parrotfish campaign highlighted the importance of science communication and the usefulness of social networks for conservation. The campaign demonstrated that social media, when used properly and effectively, is powerful for public engagement and helps create an enabling environment for change in public policy and practice for marine conservation. This dissertation offers insights into opportunities to improve the management of large tropical marine ecosystem and how coral reef resilience can be enhanced by developing MPA networks in the face of climate change. / Graduate

Connectivity is a major contributor to the overall dynamics of marine populations. However, it still remains challenging to describe connectivity on ecologically meaningful scales of time and space. This is a major impediment to evaluating the impacts of marine protected area with respect to fisheries management objectives. This dissertation brings together a wide array of spatial and connectivity information in the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) with the goal of 1) understanding the spatial distribution of fish populations and source-sink dynamics and 2) evaluating whether this information can be integrated, through a modeling framework, to identify closed areas that could be beneficial to fisheries management in the Gulf of Mexico. First, a generalized additive modelling (GAM) approach is used to describe the distribution of a large number of species groups (i.e. functional groups) across the Gulf of Mexico (GOM) using a large fisheries independent data set (SEAMAP) and climate scale (decades) oceanographic conditions. Next a numerical Lagrangian particle transport model was developed that incorporates two major connectivity processes; site specific larval production and oceanographic transport for an entire large marine ecosystem and over multiple years. The two components are then combined to develop larval dispersal patterns for the entire GOM and identify areas operating as larval sources and sinks. Last, this information is integrated into an end-to-end ecosystem model to evaluate effectiveness of closing source and sink areas for the management of reef fish fisheries. Closed area managemeny simlautions for reef fish indicated closing reef fish source areas, as opposed to sinks, in the GOM is most efficient method of increasing total biomass and yield. However, the impacts across individual functional groups were site specific. Ultimately, these simulations demonstrate the inclusion of connectivity information could improve fishery management objectives in an ecosystem context.