In the first longterm field study of the fossa, mean adult body mass measured was, in males, 7.4 kg (n=17, s.d.=1.2), and, in females, 6.1 kg (n=11 females, s.d.=0.6). Sexual size dimorphism was most marked in canine width. 376 scats yielded 554 prey items, of which the majority were lemurs (>50%)m, tenrecs and snakes. Incidence of prey in scats correlated positively with abundance. Scat composition varied with season, but not with year nor gender of fossa. Sexual dimorphism could not therefore be explained as niche separation. Home ranges were, for two males, 22.74 km² and 26.20 km², and for two females, 12.69 km² and 7.84 km². These, and incomplete ranges of six others, overlapped between males but not females, and were larger in the dry season than in the wet season. Censuses and radio-tracking generated consistent population density estimates, averaging 0.17 adults per km², substantially lower than predicted from body size, and indicating that even Madagascar's largest reserve may not hold a viable population of fossas. The unique mating system resembled a lek: females mated with multiple males on traditional sites. One female occupied a site at a time, for up to one week. The system may benefit species with low population density, by increasing mate choice for females and facilitating mate location for males. It may also reduce sexual harassment of oestrous females. Males fought at the sites, but no size-related advantage in male mating success was observed. A different mating system was predicted from the home range data. The first discovery was made of transient masculinization of a female mammal. Juvenile female fossas (n=8) exhibited an enlarged, spinescent clitoris supported by an os clitoridis, and a pigmented secretion that in adults was confined to males. Masculinization was hypothesized to reduce sexual harassment of young females.

Both The Scarlet Letter by Nathaniel Hawthorne and My Ántonia by Willa Cather depict characters that perform non-traditional gender roles. In these novels, there are expectations about how women and men should act. The purpose of this comparative study is to look at how the female and male protagonists’ actions correspond to, or differ from, these expectations and if they do so in similar ways. The analytical approach is based on Judith Butler’s theory of gender performance. This study also examines in what ways the characters’ actions conflict with, or conform to, social norms of the time by investigating the social expectations for women in the Puritan society and in the late nineteenth century. Even though the settings are separated by two hundred years, this study shows that the protagonists challenge traditional gender role norms in similar ways and that both female protagonists show a feminist desire to exist outside the binary understanding of gender.

<p>Female social dominance over males is unusual in mammals, yet characterizes most Malagasy lemurs, which represent almost 30% of all primates. Despite its prevalence in this suborder, both the evolutionary trajectory and proximate mechanism of female dominance remain unclear. Potentially associated with female dominance is a suite of behavioral, physiological and morphological traits in females that implicates ‘masculinization’ via androgen exposure; however, relative to conspecific males, female lemurs curiously show little evidence of raised androgen concentrations. In order to illuminate the proximate mechanisms underlying female dominance in lemurs, I observed mixed‐sex pairs of related Eulemur species, and identified two key study groups ‐‐ one comprised of species expressing female dominance and, the other comprised of species (from a recently evolved clade) showing equal status between the sexes (hereafter ‘egalitarian’). Comparing females from these two groups, to test the hypothesis that female dominance is an expression of an overall masculinization of the female, I 1) characterize the expression of female dominance, aggression, affiliation, and olfactory communication in Eulemur; 2) provide novel information about the hormonal and neuroendocrine correlates associated with the expression of female dominance; 3) investigate the activational role of the sex-steroid hormones in adult female Eulemur using seasonal correlates of hormonal and behavioral change; and 4) examine the specific role of estrogen in the regulation and expression of sex-reversed female behavior in these species. In doing so I highlight significant behavioral and physiological differences between female-dominant and egalitarian Eulemur and show that female dominance is associated with a more masculine behavioral and hormonal profile. I also suggest that these behavioral and hormonal differences may be the result of fundamental differences in the biosynthetic pathway associated with estrogen production. Moreover, I assert that these putative physiological differences could provide a parsimonious proximate mechanism explaining the evolution of female dominance and its subsequent relaxation in egalitarian Eulemur species.</p> / Dissertation

Orientador: Dalton José Carneiro / Banca: Maria Cristina Thomaz / Banca: Elizabeth Romagosa / Resumo: Avaliou-se os efeitos de três doses de 17-a- metiltestosterona (30, 45 e 60 mg) em dietas microencapsuladas em "spray dryer", de três tempos de sua administração (20, 30 e 40 dias) e da dieta testemunha (sem hormônio) administrada por 40 dias, sobre o crescimento, a sobrevivência e a reversão sexual da tilápia do Nilo. Foi utilizado o D.I.C. em esquema fatorial com testemunha (3 x 3 + 1), com três repetições. As 3.000 larvas de tilápia foram distribuídas em 30 caixas de fibrocimento e alimentadas com as dietas microencapsuladas com 37,6 % de PB e 4.480 Kcal de energia bruta kg-1 da dieta. Após cada período de administração, as larvas receberam dietas comerciais sem hormônio, até o final do experimento (90 dias). O baixo crescimento na fase de reversão sexual possibilitou a disponibilidade do hormônio para agir nas gônadas e reverter o sexo dos peixes. Quanto maior foi o tempo de administração das dietas microencapsuladas menor foi o crescimento das larvas na fase de reversão. Aos 90 dias houve um incremento de peso dos peixes para todos os tratamentos. As maiores doses do hormônio e os menores tempos de administração das dietas microencapsuladas contribuíram para obter maior peso corporal dos peixes no final do experimento. A sobrevivência não foi influenciada pelos fatores e apresentou-se baixa. As taxas de reversão sexual foram altas (em torno de 95%) não havendo efeito significativo entre os tratamentos que diferiram somente da testemunha (68,21%). Sugere-se utilizar dietas microencapsuladas contendo a menor dose de hormônio (30 mg) e o menor tempo de administração (20 dias) que garantem valores satisfatórios de reversão sexual. / Abstract: It has been evaluated the effect of three 17-a-metilthestostherone doses (30,45 and 60) on diets microencapsulated on "spray dryer", three administration times (20, 30 and 40 days) and a testimony diet (no hormone) administrated for 40 days, on growth, survival and sexual reversion of the Nile tilapia. It was used a CRD on a factorial scheme with testimony (3 x 3 + 1), with three replicates. The 3.000 tilapia larvae were distributed in 30 fibercement boxes and fed the microencapsulated diets with 37.6% CP and 4,480 Kcal of gross energy kg-1 of the diet. After each administration time, the larvae received commercial diets with no hormone, until the end of the experiment (90 days). The low growth on the sexual reversion phase has made possible the availability of the hormone to actuate on the gonads and revert the fish sex. The longer the administration time of the microencapsulated diets, lower the larvae growth on the reversion phase. At 90 days there was increase on fish weight for all treatments. The highest doses of hormone have contributed to obtain the higher fish body weight at the end of the experiment. Survival has not been influenced by the factors and was low. The sexual reversion rates were high (around 95%) with no significant effect among the treatment, which differed only from the testimony (68.21%). It is suggested to use microencapsulated diets containing the lowest hormone dose (30 mg) and the shortest administration time (20 days) that guarantee satisfactory sexual reversion values. / Mestre

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:22:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2007-08-31Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T20:09:28Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 zanardi_mf_me_jabo.pdf: 537230 bytes, checksum: 90191c5641401cda9d682869a5a6ba58 (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) / O presente estudo avaliou o efeito da metiltestosterona adicionada na água de cultivo e na ração sobre a reversão sexual de tilápia do Nilo (Oreochromis niloticus), bem como a presença do hormônio na larva e juvenil. O experimento foi conduzido no Laboratório de Tilapicultura do Centro de Aqüicultura da Unesp, campus de Jaboticabal. Um total de 1.500 larvas foram distribuídas em 15 aquários com volume de 15L (100 larvas cada), para aplicação dos tratamentos de reversão sexual: controle - RS, banho de imersão - BI (6 mg.L-1) e alimentação com ração com hormônio – RH (60 mg.Kg-1), com cinco repetições, imersos em caixas com 175 L (três aquários por caixa). As análises de água eram realizadas três vezes por semana, sendo monitoradas temperatura, pH, amônia, OD, alcalinidade, salinidade, sódio disponível na água e condutividade. As larvas e juvenis foram amostradas no tempo zero do início do experimento e aos 30, 37, 40, 45, 60 e 90 dias, sendo amostrados 0,5 grama de peixe por repetição para análise da testosterona na carcaça. Os peixes foram alimentados com ração suplementada com hormônio por 30 dias e em banho de imersão de 36 horas, nos dias 6 e 10 após início do experimento. As biometrias foram realizadas no início, 30 e 90 dias. Os parâmetros zootécnicos analisados foram: peso (g) e comprimento total (mm) ao início, 30 e 90 dias, ganho de peso (g) aos 30 e 90 dias, crescimento (mm), taxa de sobrevivência (%) aos 30 dias, ganho de peso individual (g.dia-1) e porcentagem de macho aos 90 dias. Através das análises estatísticas observamos que houve diferença significativa do tratamento RH aos 90 dias, apresentado o maior comprimento (79,29 mm). Em relação ao peso, houve diferença apenas do tratamento BI, apresentando o maior peso aos 90 dias (8,69 g)... / The present study evaluate the effect of metyltestosterone add in the farming water and in the ration during the sexual reversion of the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), and the presence of the hormone in fries and juveniles. The experiment was conducted in Tilapia farming laboratory of the São Paulo State University Aquaculture Center, Jaboticabal. A total of 1,500 Nile tilapia fries were allotted to 15 L – aquarium (100 fries in each) to application of the sexual reversion treatments: control - RS, bath immersion – BI (6 mg.L-1) and feeding with ration with hormone – RH (60 mg.Kg-1), with five repetitions, immersed in 175 L boxes (3 aquarium in each box). Temperature, pH, ammonia, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, salinity, disponibility of sodium in water and conductivity were analyzed three times in a week. The fries and juveniles were sampled in the beginning of the experiment, zero time, and in the days 30, 37, 40, 45, 60 e 90. Were sampled from each fish 0.5 gram to analyze testosterone in carcass. The fish were feed with supplementary ration with hormone during 30 days and took bath immersion for 36 hours, in days 6 and 10 after the beginning of the experiments. The biometrics were done in the beginning, 30 and 90 days. The evaluated parameters were: weight (g), total length (mm) in the beginning, 30 and 90 days; weight gain (g) in the days 30 and 90; growth (mm) and survival rate (%) in day 30; individual weight gain (g.dia-1) and percentage of male in day 90. Statistical analyzes indicated differences in RH treatment in days 90, showing the largest length (79.29 mm). For the weight, differences were observed only in BI treatment, showing the most weight in days 90 (8.69g). Differences were not observed for growth and survival rate. For the male rate, treatments BI and RH (86 and 94 %) were different from RS ...

Resumo: O presente estudo avaliou o efeito da metiltestosterona adicionada na água de cultivo e na ração sobre a reversão sexual de tilápia do Nilo (Oreochromis niloticus), bem como a presença do hormônio na larva e juvenil. O experimento foi conduzido no Laboratório de Tilapicultura do Centro de Aqüicultura da Unesp, campus de Jaboticabal. Um total de 1.500 larvas foram distribuídas em 15 aquários com volume de 15L (100 larvas cada), para aplicação dos tratamentos de reversão sexual: controle - RS, banho de imersão - BI (6 mg.L-1) e alimentação com ração com hormônio - RH (60 mg.Kg-1), com cinco repetições, imersos em caixas com 175 L (três aquários por caixa). As análises de água eram realizadas três vezes por semana, sendo monitoradas temperatura, pH, amônia, OD, alcalinidade, salinidade, sódio disponível na água e condutividade. As larvas e juvenis foram amostradas no tempo zero do início do experimento e aos 30, 37, 40, 45, 60 e 90 dias, sendo amostrados 0,5 grama de peixe por repetição para análise da testosterona na carcaça. Os peixes foram alimentados com ração suplementada com hormônio por 30 dias e em banho de imersão de 36 horas, nos dias 6 e 10 após início do experimento. As biometrias foram realizadas no início, 30 e 90 dias. Os parâmetros zootécnicos analisados foram: peso (g) e comprimento total (mm) ao início, 30 e 90 dias, ganho de peso (g) aos 30 e 90 dias, crescimento (mm), taxa de sobrevivência (%) aos 30 dias, ganho de peso individual (g.dia-1) e porcentagem de macho aos 90 dias. Através das análises estatísticas observamos que houve diferença significativa do tratamento RH aos 90 dias, apresentado o maior comprimento (79,29 mm). Em relação ao peso, houve diferença apenas do tratamento BI, apresentando o maior peso aos 90 dias (8,69 g) ... / Abstract: The present study evaluate the effect of metyltestosterone add in the farming water and in the ration during the sexual reversion of the Nile tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus), and the presence of the hormone in fries and juveniles. The experiment was conducted in Tilapia farming laboratory of the São Paulo State University Aquaculture Center, Jaboticabal. A total of 1,500 Nile tilapia fries were allotted to 15 L - aquarium (100 fries in each) to application of the sexual reversion treatments: control - RS, bath immersion - BI (6 mg.L-1) and feeding with ration with hormone - RH (60 mg.Kg-1), with five repetitions, immersed in 175 L boxes (3 aquarium in each box). Temperature, pH, ammonia, dissolved oxygen, alkalinity, salinity, disponibility of sodium in water and conductivity were analyzed three times in a week. The fries and juveniles were sampled in the beginning of the experiment, zero time, and in the days 30, 37, 40, 45, 60 e 90. Were sampled from each fish 0.5 gram to analyze testosterone in carcass. The fish were feed with supplementary ration with hormone during 30 days and took bath immersion for 36 hours, in days 6 and 10 after the beginning of the experiments. The biometrics were done in the beginning, 30 and 90 days. The evaluated parameters were: weight (g), total length (mm) in the beginning, 30 and 90 days; weight gain (g) in the days 30 and 90; growth (mm) and survival rate (%) in day 30; individual weight gain (g.dia-1) and percentage of male in day 90. Statistical analyzes indicated differences in RH treatment in days 90, showing the largest length (79.29 mm). For the weight, differences were observed only in BI treatment, showing the most weight in days 90 (8.69g). Differences were not observed for growth and survival rate. For the male rate, treatments BI and RH (86 and 94 %) were different from RS ... / Orientador: Teresa Cristina Ribeiro Dias Kobertein / Coorientador: Elisabeth Criscuolo Urbinati / Banca: Marta Verardino de Stéfani / Banca: Lucia Helena Vasques / Mestre

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:33:31Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2010-07-01Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:23:33Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 oliveira_lc_dr_botfmvz.pdf: 534359 bytes, checksum: 425a226d27182c56505937288cf1636e (MD5) / Coordenação de Aperfeiçoamento de Pessoal de Nível Superior (CAPES) / Universidade Estadual Paulista (UNESP) / O presente estudo tem como objetivos avaliar o efeito de elevadas frequências de alimentação nas fases iniciais de criação de tilápia (Oreochromis niloticus) da linhagem GIFT sobre o desempenho produtivo, reversão sexual. Foram utilizados 24 hapas com abertura de malhas de (1 mm e 7 mm) , distribuídos em um viveiro de 1000 m2, com profundidade média de 1,5 metros e renovação de água de 7 % do volume total. As pós-larvas de tilápias, com peso e comprimento médio 0,015 ± 0,002 g e 10 ± 4 mm respectivamente, foram alojadas na densidade de 2 larvas por litro totalizando 500 larvas por hapa. Um sistema automatizado de alimentação foi instalado individualmente nos hapas. As pós-larvas foram submetidas a quatro diferentes frequências alimentares durante o dia e a noite: T24 (24 vezes – hora em hora); T32 (32 vezes – 45 em 45minutos); T48 (48 vezes – 30 em 30 minutos) e T96 (96 vezes – 15 em 15minutos) com seis repetições por tratamento. O processo de reversão sexual foi de 14 dias de administração de hormônio incorporado a dieta, e consequentemente foram alimentados com outras dietas por um período de 70 dias. Semanalmente foram realizadas biometrias de 50 animas, de cada unidade experimental, para a correção da oferta de alimento. Todas as frequências utilizadas foram eficientes no processo de reversão sexual em 14 dias. A frequência de 48 vezes de alimentação apresentou os melhores resultados para ganho de peso, peso médio final, sobrevivência e reversão sexual. Na fase juvenil não houve diferença significativa entre as frequências alimentares / The present study has objectives to evaluate the effect high feeding frequency in the initial phases of tilapia (Oreochromis niloticus) of strain GIFT on the growth performance, sex reversal. Were used 24 hapas with opening of meshes of (1 mm and 7 mm), distributed in a pond of 1000 m2, with medium depth of 1,5 meters and renewal of water of 7% of the total volume. The fry with medium weight and length (0.015 ± 0.002 g and 10.4 mm) respectively, with in the density of 2 fry by liter. An automated feeding system was installed individually in the hapas. The fry were submitted to four different feeding frequencies during the day and the night: T24 (24 times - hour in hour); T32 (32 times - 45 in 45 minutes); T48 (48 times - 30 in 30 minutes) and T96 (96vezes - 15 in 15 minutes) with six repetitions for treatment. The sex reversal process was in 14 days of administration the hormone diet, and consequently they were fed with other diets by a period of 70 days. Weekly samplings of 50 fish were accomplished, of each experimental unit, for the correction of the food offer. The high feeding frequencies were effective in the sex reversal process in 14 days, The feeding frequency of 48 presented the best results for weight wining, final medium weight, survival and sex reversal.. In the juvenile there was not significant difference among feeding frequencies

Made available in DSpace on 2014-06-11T19:28:23Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 0 Previous issue date: 2006-12-08Bitstream added on 2014-06-13T19:36:53Z : No. of bitstreams: 1 antonio_c_me_jabo.pdf: 431145 bytes, checksum: 3ca687417b503beacc5530cc37c73eb8 (MD5) / Fundação de Amparo à Pesquisa do Estado de São Paulo (FAPESP) / Avaliou-se os efeitos de três doses de 17-a- metiltestosterona (30, 45 e 60 mg) em dietas microencapsuladas em spray dryer, de três tempos de sua administração (20, 30 e 40 dias) e da dieta testemunha (sem hormônio) administrada por 40 dias, sobre o crescimento, a sobrevivência e a reversão sexual da tilápia do Nilo. Foi utilizado o D.I.C. em esquema fatorial com testemunha (3 x 3 + 1), com três repetições. As 3.000 larvas de tilápia foram distribuídas em 30 caixas de fibrocimento e alimentadas com as dietas microencapsuladas com 37,6 % de PB e 4.480 Kcal de energia bruta kg-1 da dieta. Após cada período de administração, as larvas receberam dietas comerciais sem hormônio, até o final do experimento (90 dias). O baixo crescimento na fase de reversão sexual possibilitou a disponibilidade do hormônio para agir nas gônadas e reverter o sexo dos peixes. Quanto maior foi o tempo de administração das dietas microencapsuladas menor foi o crescimento das larvas na fase de reversão. Aos 90 dias houve um incremento de peso dos peixes para todos os tratamentos. As maiores doses do hormônio e os menores tempos de administração das dietas microencapsuladas contribuíram para obter maior peso corporal dos peixes no final do experimento. A sobrevivência não foi influenciada pelos fatores e apresentou-se baixa. As taxas de reversão sexual foram altas (em torno de 95%) não havendo efeito significativo entre os tratamentos que diferiram somente da testemunha (68,21%). Sugere-se utilizar dietas microencapsuladas contendo a menor dose de hormônio (30 mg) e o menor tempo de administração (20 dias) que garantem valores satisfatórios de reversão sexual. / It has been evaluated the effect of three 17-a-metilthestostherone doses (30,45 and 60) on diets microencapsulated on spray dryer, three administration times (20, 30 and 40 days) and a testimony diet (no hormone) administrated for 40 days, on growth, survival and sexual reversion of the Nile tilapia. It was used a CRD on a factorial scheme with testimony (3 x 3 + 1), with three replicates. The 3.000 tilapia larvae were distributed in 30 fibercement boxes and fed the microencapsulated diets with 37.6% CP and 4,480 Kcal of gross energy kg-1 of the diet. After each administration time, the larvae received commercial diets with no hormone, until the end of the experiment (90 days). The low growth on the sexual reversion phase has made possible the availability of the hormone to actuate on the gonads and revert the fish sex. The longer the administration time of the microencapsulated diets, lower the larvae growth on the reversion phase. At 90 days there was increase on fish weight for all treatments. The highest doses of hormone have contributed to obtain the higher fish body weight at the end of the experiment. Survival has not been influenced by the factors and was low. The sexual reversion rates were high (around 95%) with no significant effect among the treatment, which differed only from the testimony (68.21%). It is suggested to use microencapsulated diets containing the lowest hormone dose (30 mg) and the shortest administration time (20 days) that guarantee satisfactory sexual reversion values.

El tema general de la investigación es la respuesta de la indumentaria al contexto social. Esta enfocado en la masculinización de la indumentaria femenina de los años veinte en Europa. El tema general se aborda desde dos perspectivas. La sociología del vestir determina la importancia que tiene la indumentaria en la sociedad y como es que a partir de esta se puede entender la época en la que se vive. La psicología del vestir determina que la indumentaria y la acción de vestir el cuerpo, puede otorgar a las personas valor para sí mismos y valor dentro de la sociedad. El tema específico, se aborda el contexto social el cual comprende el fin de la Primera Guerra mundial y la pandemia por H1N1. Asimismo, abarca los cambios sociales de la década del veinte y su influencia en la indumentaria femenina. Además, se definen términos como masculinización y se desarrollan dos arquetipos de las mujeres de la época, «La Garçonne» y «Flappers». Además, se desarrolla el proceso creativo de una colección de indumentaria femenina. Para poder desarrollar la colección se inició con la búsqueda de antecedentes de diseño y se describe el usuario objetivo de la colección. El proceso creativo cuenta con imágenes de las mujeres de los años veinte y de estilo loungwear. Además, registra el proceso mediante moodboards, bocetos, ilustraciones y dibujos técnicos de prendas. Para aterrizar la colección a un mercado peruano, se realizó una entrevista a un diseñador de indumentaria para obtener un punto de vista más cercano y desde la realidad peruana. La colección final cuenta con diez looks, los cuales se encuentran ilustrados al final del documento. / The main topic of the research is the response of clothing to the social context. It is focused on the masculinization of the female clothing of the twenties in Europe. The main topic is approached from two perspectives. The sociology of clothing determines the importance of clothing in society and how it is that from this we can understand the time in which we live. Dress psychology determines that clothing and the action of dressing the body can give people value for themselves and value within society. The specific topic addresses the social context which includes the end of the First World War and the H1N1 pandemic. It also covers the social changes of the twenties and their influence on women's clothing. In addition, terms such as masculinization are defined and two archetypes of the women of the time are developed, "La Garçonne" and "Flappers". In addition, the creative process of a collection of women's clothing is developed. In order to develop the collection, the search for design antecedents was started and the target user of the collection was described. The creative process features images of 1920s and loungwear women. In addition, it records the process through moodboards, sketches, illustrations, and technical drawings of garments. To land the collection in a Peruvian market, an interview was conducted with an apparel designer to obtain a closer point of view and from the Peruvian reality. The final collection has ten looks, which are illustrated at the end of the document. / Trabajo de investigación

The use of the Daubert Standard in court proceedings has highlighted the need to substantiate scientific findings or claims beyond simply accepting the word of a respected expert. The concept of postmenopausal masculinization of the skull in female crania falls into this category. Dr. Walker references this concept in several articles but there is no research to support this hypothesis. This project examines the theory of postmenopausal masculinization of female crania from several perspectives, using the visual sex estimation method set forth in Standards for Data Collection from Human Skeletal Remains edited by Jane E. Buikstra and Douglas H Ubelaker, photographic seriation of these sex estimation traits, and metric measurements in conjunction with Fordisc 3.1. A sample of 395 crania from the Hamann-Todd Collection at the Cleveland Museum of Natural History was analyzed using all three of these methods to determine if there was a pattern of masculinization in the postmenopausal female sample. The average age for the onset of menopause in the United States is 50, thus there should be an increase in "masculinization" observable through more rugged sex estimation traits, a higher number of females 50 or over being found below the midpoint in photographic seriations of sex estimation traits, and an increase in Fordisc 3.1 sex identification misclassifications in females in this age category. The results of the analyses revealed that there were statistically significant differences between ancestry groups, the sexes, and in some cases, age-groups. The results of this research indicate that though there are some differences between comparison groups, there does not appear to be a cohesive pattern of masculinization in female crania at or after the average age of onset of menopause. Human variation is endless, and even in areas of the skeleton for which it has been established that there is a significant degree of sexual dimorphism, there will be individuals who do not fit neatly into a binary conception of sexual divergence. Though these individuals may be misidentified as the opposite sex using one or all of the methods utilized in this project, this falls short of being classified as a part of the menopausal process in females.