The increase in bullying and its detrimental impacts threaten children's healthy development across the world; however, little research has examined multi-factors related to bullying. Guided by ecological theory, this study examined ecological factors that related to children's bystander and defender behavior when they witness bullying. Considering the role of culture and maternal emotion socialization in children's socio-emotional development, cultural differences in the relation of maternal emotion socialization on children's reactions to bullying through their empathy were investigated. Children (10-12 years old) and their mothers in the United States (n=165) and South Korea (n=158) participated in an online survey. Mothers completed the Coping with Children's Negative Emotions to assess maternal unsupportive and supportive reactions to their children's emotions. Children reported on their empathy (i.e., personal distress and empathic concern) using the Interpersonal Reactivity Index and on their bystander/defender behaviors using the Types of the Conformity Groups in Bullying. For bystander behavior, mothers' unsupportive reactions were significantly correlated with children's bystander behavior through empathic concern in both cultures. Personal distress mediated the relation of maternal unsupportive reactions to bystander behavior only in the American sample. For defender behavior, American mothers' supportive reactions directly predicted defender behavior whereas the effect of Korean mothers' supportive reactions on defender behavior was mediated by empathic concern. More personal distress was related to more defender behavior in the American sample while less personal distress was related to more defender behavior in the Korean sample. Results of this study supported cultural differences in the relation of maternal emotion socialization to children's reaction to bullying. American children were more likely to help the victim when their mothers supported their negative emotions. For Korean children, mothers' supportive reactions were related to their prosocial behavior through their empathic concern. However, in both cultures, children's empathic concern was a significant mediator in the relation between maternal unsupportive reactions and bystander behavior. This finding may provide educational guidance to bullying intervention programs across cultures. / Doctor of Philosophy / More than one out of five students in the United States and more than one out of ten students in South Korea experience bullying. The detrimental effects of bullying can affect not only victims and bullies but also classmates who witness the bullying. I examined factors that related to bystander behavior (ignoring or staying away from bullying) and defender behavior (helping the victim or actively endeavoring to stop bullying) in bullying to help in efforts to stop bullying. Because positive emotional experiences with mothers can help children develop empathy and empathy tends to elicit helping behavior, I examined how mothers' reactions to their children's negative emotions were related to children's bystander behavior and defender behavior through their empathic abilities. However, research and theories on bullying has been predominantly focused on Western populations. My study addressed this gap, examining cultural differences in the relations between the United States and South Korea to bring attention to the role of culture in parents' emotional socialization and children's development. Results from this study will help schools and communities to provide culturally sensitive bullying intervention programs with parents. Children (10-12 years old) and their mothers in the United States (n=165) and South Korea (n=158) participated in an online survey. Mothers were asked about ways that they react to their children's negative emotions. Mothers' unsupportive reactions refer to minimization, distress and punitive reactions when their children express negative emotions. Mothers' supportive reactions mean maternal comforting, acknowledgement, and encouragement of children's negative emotions. In the online survey, children reported on their empathy and reactions when they witness bullying. Cultural differences in the relations were confirmed. American children were more likely to help the victim when their mothers supported their negative emotions. For Korean children, mothers' supportive reactions were related to their defender behavior through their empathic concern. However, in both countries, the more mothers displayed supportive reactions, the more children reported empathic concern; children's empathic concern was an important bridge between maternal unsupportive reactions and bystander behavior.

In a diverse community sample of mothers (N = 108) and their preschool‐aged children (Mage = 3.50 years), this study conducted person‐oriented analyses of maternal emotion regulation (ER) based on a multimethod assessment incorporating physiological, observational, and self‐report indicators. A model‐based cluster analysis was applied to five indicators of maternal ER: maternal self‐report, observed negative affect in a parent–child interaction, baseline respiratory sinus arrhythmia (RSA), and RSA suppression across two laboratory tasks. Model‐based cluster analyses revealed four maternal ER profiles, including a group of mothers with average ER functioning, characterized by socioeconomic advantage and more positive parenting behavior. A dysregulated cluster demonstrated the greatest challenges with parenting and dyadic interactions. Two clusters of intermediate dysregulation were also identified. Implications for assessment and applications to parenting interventions are discussed.

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