AIM: To examine associations of prenatal maternal smoking and second-hand smoke (SHS) exposure with the development of adolescent obesity. METHODS: Longitudinal data (1991-2007) from National Institute of Child Health and Human Development Study of Early Child Care and Youth Development involving mothers that smoked and or exposed to SHS during the year before birth were analysed. Adolescent obesity in ages 12.0-15.9 years was defined as a BMI ≥ 95th percentile. Generalised estimating equations (GEE) were used for the analyses. RESULTS: Obesity was more prevalent among adolescents whose mothers smoked or had SHS exposure than those that did not smoke or exposed to SHS. After adjusting for maternal and child factors, GEE models showed that odds of adolescent obesity increased with prenatal maternal smoking (OR = 1.57, 95% CI = 1.03-2.39) and SHS exposure (OR = 1.53, 95% CI = 1.04-2.27). The odds for obesity increased more than two times among adolescents exposed to both maternal smoking and SHS (OR = 2.10, 95% CI = 1.24, 3.56) compared with those without exposure. Additionally, not breastfeeding, maternal obesity, and longer screen viewing hours per day were associated with increased odds of obesity. CONCLUSIONS: There is possibly a long-term joint effect of prenatal maternal smoke (smoking and SHS) exposure on obesity among adolescent offspring, and the effect is independent of birthweight. These findings suggest that adolescent obesity could possibly be curtailed with the development and promotion of smoking cessation programmes for families during the year before birth.

The associations between maternal smoking and nicotine dependence and patterns of smoking and nicotine dependence in offspring were examined in a large community-based sample of adolescents. Data were derived from baseline and 4-year follow-up assessments of 938 respondents aged 14–17 years at the outset of the Early Developmental Stages of Psychopathology (EDSP) study, a prospective-longitudinal community study of adolescents and young adults and their parents respectively. Smoking and nicotine dependence in respondents were assessed using the Munich Composite International Diagnostic Interview (DSM-IV algorithms). Diagnostic information about smoking behavior in mothers was collected by independent direct diagnostic interviews with the mothers. In comparison to children of non- or occasionally smoking mothers, children of regularly smoking and nicotine-dependent mothers had higher probabilities of using tobacco as well as of developing nicotine dependence. For all ages under consideration, survival analyses revealed a higher cumulative lifetime risk of regular smoking and nicotine dependence among these children. Maternal smoking during pregnancy seems to represent an additional risk for these outcomes in children, specifically with regard to the risk of developing nicotine dependence. Associations were comparable for sons and daughters. Our findings show that maternal smoking predicts escalation of smoking, development of nicotine dependence, and stability of smoking behavior in children. Implications for specific intervention and prevention efforts are discussed.

Magister Scientiae (Medical Bioscience) - MSc(MBS) / Maternal smoking is known to cause serious health risks to the unborn child. Recent studies implicate nicotine as the causative factor. Maternal nicotine exposure during pregnancy and lactation interferes with foetal and neonatal lung growth and development,rendering the lung more susceptible to damage and diseases. Therefore, the aim of this study was to investigate: 1) the effect of maternal exposure to nicotine (1mg/kg BW/day) during all phases of lung development: 2) and vitamin C supplementation (0.5mg/kg BW/day) to prevent the adverse effects of maternal nicotine exposure on lung development in the offspring. This is based on studies in our laboratories which suggested that nicotine reduces the blood and tissue vitamin C content of the mother,thereby rendering the neonate more susceptible to oxidation damage. The chief motivation of this study was to establish whether an anti-oxidant, such as vitamin C, can be administered to smoking pregnant and lactating mothers in order to combat the deleterious effects of nicotine on the lung development of their offspring. It was found that although maternal nicotine exposure had no significant effect on the growth parameters of the offspring, it did have an effect on the development of the lung, compromising the ability of the lung to act as an organ of gaseous exchange. There was a decrease in the surface area available for gas exchange. The change occurred after the lung reached maturation and resembled microscopic emphysema. Vitamin C supplementation was unable to fully protect the neonatal lung against the adverse effects of maternal nicotine exposure; it however partially protected the neonatal lung against structural deterioration. Supplementation with vitamin C definitely offers possibilities as a prophylactic to combat the detrimental influence of maternal nicotine-exposure on foetal and postnatal lung development.

<p>  </p> <p>Maternal smoking during pregnancy (MSDP) is still occurring in the United States, as of 2021, at an average rate of 6% (CDC, WONDER). This proximal exposure to MSDP has been associated with decreased fetal head size, increased risk of SIDS, and increased risk for low birthweight (Abraham et al., 2017, Avsar et al., 2021; Knopik et al., 2016b) in infants exposed to MSDP compared to infants not exposed to MSDP. Additionally, MSDP has been associated with epigenetics in the form of differential DNA methylation (DNAm) in children and adolescents who were exposed to MSDP. Among these studies, there has been consistency in gene-specific findings of differential methylation in global DNAm (across the genome), <em>AHRR, CYP1A1, CNTNAP2, MYOIG, </em>and<em> GFI1 </em>(Ladd-Acosta et al., 2015; Lee et al., 2015; Richmond et al., 2015; Rzehak et al., 2016)<em>.</em> Using the frameworks of the Developmental Origins of Health and Disease, as well as Ecological Systems Theory, the current study aims to (1) test the effect of MSDP on global DNAm (across the genome) cross-sectionally in 8-17 y/o children and adolescents, (2) attempt to replicate and analyze the MSDP impacts on <em>AHRR, CYP1A1, CNTNAP2, MYOIG, </em>and<em> GFI1, </em>and (3) adjust for several prenatal and postnatal covariates (second-hand smoke and particulate matter (PM2.5), specifically) in an attempt to isolate the MSDP exposure on DNAm analysis. In a sample of 325 8-17 y/o children whose sibling was exposed to more or less MSDP compared to them, it was found that higher child-specific MSDP was associated with more global methylation and less <em>CNTNAP2</em> methylation, possibly suggesting evidence for a partially causal pathway between MSDP and DNAm for these genetic outcomes. Both child-specific and family-average MSDP were associated with<em> CYP1A1</em> and <em>MYO1G</em> methylation. There were also various findings related to child sex and age covariates, as well as postnatal PM2.5. Future studies focused on replication of these findings in a longitudinal genetic design could further confirm the associations found in the current study.</p>

Made available in DSpace on 2016-03-22T17:26:26Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 marcelo.pdf: 250009 bytes, checksum: a3db311d3feb2a024990ef201613e095 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2009-12-15 / Introduction: The struggle against the smoking habit is an increasing concern around the world, mainly during gestation because of its impact in maternal and child health. Despite all efforts, tobaccoism indices are still high. Objectives: To evaluate the prevalence of tobaccoism along with pregnancy and its impact on the health of the newborn. Methods: It is a crosssectional study nested in a cohort study, which occurred in all of the Pelotas maternity wards and has monitored babies born between September 2002 and May 2003. Factors related to the outcomes were subjected to bivariate and multivariate analysis. Results: 2741 mothers were included in the study, and 23.5% of them smoked during pregnancy. The variables significantly associated to maternal smoking were: pregnant woman ethnicity, family income, educational level both of the pregnant woman and her partner, multiparity, absence of a partner, and number of prenatal appointments. Women who smoked had a higher risk of 62% to have babies with low birth weight. Conclusion: Although the limitations that these study desing provides, one can conclude that maternal tobaccoism during gestation is a consequence of a myriad of factors, thus being difficult to be limited to one factor of risk only, or else to a causal agent. Its effect on the fetus calls for the need of campaigns at a population level as well as for adjusted prenatal appointments when maternal tabaccoism is present, so that adverse effects of cigarette smoking become less common tobaccoism, maternal smoking, low birth weight, prematurity. / Introdução: O combate ao hábito de fumar é preocupação crescente em todo o mundo, principalmente durante a gestação, com impacto na saúde materno-infantil. Apesar de todos os esforços, ainda são altos os índices de tabagismo. Objetivos: Avaliar a prevalência de tabagismo na gestação e o seu impacto sobre a saúde do recém-nascido. Métodos: É um estudo transversal aninhado a um estudo de coorte que monitorou todos os nascimentos, em todas as maternidades de Pelotas, no período de setembro de 2002 a maio de 2003. Realizaram-se análises univariada, bivariada e multivariada, considerando um modelo hierárquico das variáveis associadas ao desfecho deste estudo. Resultados: 2741 mães foram incluídas no estudo, sendo que 23,5% fumaram durante a gestação. As variáveis que se mostraram associadas de forma significativa com tabagismo materno na gestação foram: cor da gestante; renda familiar; escolaridade do companheiro e da gestante; multiparidade, ausência de companheiro; número de consultas pré-natais. As gestantes que fumaram tiveram um risco 62% maior de terem bebês com baixo peso ao nascer. Conclusão: Mesmo com as limitações que o delineamento deste estudo estabelece, conclui-se que o tabagismo materno na gestação é fruto de uma agregação de fatores de risco, sendo difícil restringí-lo a um único fator ou agente causal. Seus efeitos sobre o feto remetem à necessidade de campanhas de âmbito populacional e a consultas pré-natais mais adequadas quando esse quadro se faz presente para que os efeitos adversos do uso de cigarro tornem-se mais incomuns

Σκοπός: Η μεταγεννητική αύξηση των παιδιών που εκτέθηκαν στον καπνό του τσιγάρου ενδομητρίως δεν είναι πλήρως κατανοητή. Σκοπός της παρούσας μελέτης είναι να ερευνήσει την αύξηση παιδιών των οποίων οι μητέρες κάπνιζαν στη διάρκεια της εγκυμοσύνης, κατά τα πρώτα έξι χρόνια της ζωής τους. Μέθοδοι: Το βάρος σώματος, το μήκος σώματος και η περίμετρος κεφαλής μετρήθηκαν στη γέννηση και κατόπιν ετησίως για έξι έτη σε 100 παιδιά των οποίων οι μητέρες κάπνιζαν (ομάδα μελέτης) και 100 παιδιά των οποίων οι μητέρες δεν κάπνιζαν (ομάδα ελέγχου). Αποτελέσματα: Το βάρος και η περίμετρος κεφαλής ήταν σημαντικά μικρότερα στα νεογνά των οποίων οι μητέρες κάπνιζαν >15 τσιγάρα την ημέρα, αλλά η διαφορά έχασε τη στατιστική σημαντικότητα στον τρίτο χρόνο της ζωής. Το μήκος ήταν σημαντικά μικρότερο στα νεογνά της ομάδας μελέτης στη γέννηση και ακολουθούσε αύξηση της διαφοράς από το φυσιολογικό έως το δεύτερο έτος, οπότε η μέση διαφορά των παιδιών που οι μητέρες τους κάπνιζαν >15 τσιγάρα την ημέρα από τα παιδιά της ομάδας ελέγχου ήταν -3,4 εκατοστά (p<0,0001). Στη συνέχεια, τα παιδιά των καπνιστριών μητέρων παρουσίασαν επιτάχυνση του ρυθμού αύξησης και η διαφορά από την ομάδα ελέγχου στα 3, 4, 5 και 6 χρόνια ζωής ήταν -2,5 (p<0,0001), -2,2 (p=0,005), -2,1 (p=0,013), και -1,9 εκατοστά (p=0,055), αντίστοιχα. Η καθυστερημένη αύξηση σχετιζόταν με το κάπνισμα αυτό καθ’εαυτό και δείχθηκε ότι η καθυστέρηση της αύξησης είναι ανεξάρτητη από πολλούς συμπαράγοντες. Επίσης, στη γέννηση υπήρχε σημαντική αρνητική συσχέτιση μεταξύ του αριθμού των τσιγάρων που καπνίζονταν ημερησίως και των παραμέτρων αύξησης που μελετήθηκαν. Η αρνητική συσχέτιση παρέμεινε σημαντική έως τον έκτο χρόνο ζωής μόνο για το ύψος. Συμπέρασμα: Το μήκος παρουσιάζει την πιο επίμονη καθυστέρηση της αύξησης από τις παραμέτρους που μελετήθηκαν, δηλαδή το βάρος σώματος και την περίμετρο κεφαλής, αλλά μετά το δεύτερο έτος της ζωής συμβαίνει επιτάχυνση της αύξησης, και έτσι η ενδομήτρια έκθεση στον καπνό του τσιγάρου φαίνεται να μην έχει μόνιμη επίδραση στην τελική αύξηση των παιδιών. / Objectives: Postnatal growth in children exposed in utero to tobacco smoke is not well understood. This study investigated growth during the first 6 years in children whose mothers smoked during pregnancy. Materials and Methods: Weight, length, and head circumference were measured annually for 6 years in 100 children in each group of smoking (study) and non smoking (control) mothers. Results: Weight and head circumference were significantly smaller in the neonates whose mothers smoked >15 cigarettes/day, but the difference disappeared by 3 years of life. Length was significantly smaller in the study neonates at birth, followed by increasing divergence from normality up to 2 years, when the mean difference of children whose mothers smoked >15 cigarettes/day from control children was -3.4 cm (p<0.0001). Subsequently, they manifested catch-up growth, and the difference from the controls at 3, 4, 5, and 6 years was -2.5 cm (p<0.0001), -2.2 cm (p=0.005), -2.1 cm (p=0.013), and -1.9 cm (p=0.055), respectively. Discussion: The delayed growth was related to smoking per se and appeared to be independent of several confounding factors. At birth, there was a significant negative correlation between the number of cigarettes smoked per day and the growth parameters studied; it remained significant up to the sixth year only for length. Conclusion: Length exhibits the most persistent growth delay of the parameters studied, but catch-up growth occurs after the second year of life, and thus, intrauterine exposure to tobacco smoke seems to have no permanent effect on children’s growth.

The associations between maternal smoking and nicotine dependence and patterns of smoking and nicotine dependence in offspring were examined in a large community-based sample of adolescents. Data were derived from baseline and 4-year follow-up assessments of 938 respondents aged 14–17 years at the outset of the Early Developmental Stages of Psychopathology (EDSP) study, a prospective-longitudinal community study of adolescents and young adults and their parents respectively. Smoking and nicotine dependence in respondents were assessed using the Munich Composite International Diagnostic Interview (DSM-IV algorithms). Diagnostic information about smoking behavior in mothers was collected by independent direct diagnostic interviews with the mothers. In comparison to children of non- or occasionally smoking mothers, children of regularly smoking and nicotine-dependent mothers had higher probabilities of using tobacco as well as of developing nicotine dependence. For all ages under consideration, survival analyses revealed a higher cumulative lifetime risk of regular smoking and nicotine dependence among these children. Maternal smoking during pregnancy seems to represent an additional risk for these outcomes in children, specifically with regard to the risk of developing nicotine dependence. Associations were comparable for sons and daughters. Our findings show that maternal smoking predicts escalation of smoking, development of nicotine dependence, and stability of smoking behavior in children. Implications for specific intervention and prevention efforts are discussed.

Introdução: A exposição do feto a grandes quantidades de componentes tóxicos decorrente do consumo de tabaco e álcool durante a gestação pode acarretar problemas tais como prematuridade, baixo peso ao nascer, aborto e distúrbios no desenvolvimento infantil. Essa associação tem sido recentemente objeto de diversos estudos, porém os resultados são contraditórios devido aos métodos e amostras distintos. Objetivo: Estudar a associação entre o consumo de tabaco e/ou álcool pela gestante e o desenvolvimento infantil entre 13 e 30 meses de idade. Método: Estudo descritivo e analítico, prospectivo, de uma coorte de conveniência iniciada no pré-natal (2010), avaliada no nascimento e a partir do início do segundo ano de vida (2011/2013) no município de Ribeirão Preto, SP. A variável dependente foi o escore médio do desempenho dos filhos nas cinco subescalas da Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development ® third edition - screening test (Bayley - III®). A variável exploratória foi o consumo de tabaco e/ou álcool na gestação, classificado como nenhum consumo, consumo isolado de tabaco ou álcool e consumo concomitante das substâncias. As diferenças entre as médias nos escores das cinco subescalas foram comparadas por meio de regressão linear, em quatro modelos: ajustado pelas faixas etárias de aplicação do teste, propostas no manual técnico da escala (modelo 1); ajustado pelas faixas etárias, por consumo de tabaco e/ou álcool na gestação e características da mãe, da gestação e do parto (modelo 2); ajustado pelas faixas etárias, por consumo de tabaco e/ou álcool na gestação e variáveis do seguimento das crianças (modelo 3); ajustado por todas as variáveis dos modelos anteriores (modelo 4). Resultados: Foram estudadas 998 mulheres, das quais 121 (12,1%) fumaram e 246 (24,6%) referiram ter consumido bebida alcoólica na gravidez. O consumo isolado de álcool foi três vezes maior (18,6%) do que o consumo apenas de tabaco (6,1%). O consumo combinado de tabaco e álcool durante a gestação foi de 6,0%, sem diferença segundo a faixa etária das crianças avaliadas (p>0.05). Não houve diferença nas médias do escore cognitivo segundo o consumo das substâncias em nenhum modelo. Consumo concomitante foi associado a menor média dos escores em ambas as subescalas de comunicação (diferença de 1,12 pontos para comunicação receptiva, IC95% 0,45 a 1,79; 1,19 pontos para comunicação expressiva, IC95% 0,31 a 2,07) e motoras (diferença de 1,20 pontos na subescala motora fina, IC95% 0,55 a 1,85; 0,70 pontos para subescala motora grossa, IC95% 0,13 a 1,28), em torno de um ponto em média, comparado com nenhum consumo de tabaco e álcool. Conclusão: Consumo concomitante de tabaco e álcool teve efeito significativo, porém pequeno, na média dos escores de comunicação e motores, mas não na subescala cognitiva. / Introduction: Fetal exposure to large amounts of toxic compounds resulting from the consumption of tobacco and alcohol during pregnancy can lead to problems such as preterm birth, low birth weight, miscarriage and disorders in child development. This association has recently been the subject of several studies, but the results are contradictory due to differences in methods and samples. Objective: To study the association between the consumption of tobacco and/or alcohol by pregnant women and child development between 13 and 30 months of age. Methods: This is a descriptive and analytical, prospective study of a cohort of convenience initiated prenatally (2010), assessed at birth and from the beginning of the second year of life (2011-2013) in the city of Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. The dependent variable was the mean score of the performance of children in the five subscales of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development ® third edition - screening test (Bayley - III®). The explanatory variable was the use of tobacco and/or alcohol during pregnancy rated as no consumption, isolated consumption of tobacco and alcohol and concomitant consumption of the substances. The differences between the mean scores in the five subscales were compared using linear regression in four models: adjusted for age of test application proposed in the technical manual of the scale (model 1); adjusted by age groups, for tobacco and/or alcohol use during pregnancy and maternal characteristics of pregnancy and childbirth (model 2); adjusted by age groups, for tobacco and/or alcohol use during pregnancy and variables related to children in the follow-up (model 3); adjusted for all the variables of the previous models (model 4). Results: 998 women were studied, 121 of them (12.1%) smoked and 246 (24.6%) reported having consumed alcohol in pregnancy. The isolated alcohol consumption was three times higher (18.6%) than the consumption of tobacco only (6.1%). The combined use of tobacco and alcohol during pregnancy was 6.0%, with no difference according to the child\'s age group (p> 0.05). There was no difference in mean cognitive score based on consumption of substances in any model. Concomitant intake was associated with lower mean scores in both communication subscales (1.12 points difference for receptive communication, 95% CI 0.45 to 1.79; 1.19 points for expressive communication, 95% CI 0.31 to 2.07) and motor subscale (1.20 points difference in the fine motor subscale, 95% CI 0.55 to 1.85; 0.70 points for gross motor subscale, 95% CI 0.13 to 1.28), around a point on average compared with no consumption of tobacco and alcohol. Conclusion: concomitant consumption of tobacco and alcohol had a significant effect, however small, in the mean score of the communication and motor subscales, but not in the cognitive subscale.

Introdução: A exposição do feto a grandes quantidades de componentes tóxicos decorrente do consumo de tabaco e álcool durante a gestação pode acarretar problemas tais como prematuridade, baixo peso ao nascer, aborto e distúrbios no desenvolvimento infantil. Essa associação tem sido recentemente objeto de diversos estudos, porém os resultados são contraditórios devido aos métodos e amostras distintos. Objetivo: Estudar a associação entre o consumo de tabaco e/ou álcool pela gestante e o desenvolvimento infantil entre 13 e 30 meses de idade. Método: Estudo descritivo e analítico, prospectivo, de uma coorte de conveniência iniciada no pré-natal (2010), avaliada no nascimento e a partir do início do segundo ano de vida (2011/2013) no município de Ribeirão Preto, SP. A variável dependente foi o escore médio do desempenho dos filhos nas cinco subescalas da Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development ® third edition - screening test (Bayley - III®). A variável exploratória foi o consumo de tabaco e/ou álcool na gestação, classificado como nenhum consumo, consumo isolado de tabaco ou álcool e consumo concomitante das substâncias. As diferenças entre as médias nos escores das cinco subescalas foram comparadas por meio de regressão linear, em quatro modelos: ajustado pelas faixas etárias de aplicação do teste, propostas no manual técnico da escala (modelo 1); ajustado pelas faixas etárias, por consumo de tabaco e/ou álcool na gestação e características da mãe, da gestação e do parto (modelo 2); ajustado pelas faixas etárias, por consumo de tabaco e/ou álcool na gestação e variáveis do seguimento das crianças (modelo 3); ajustado por todas as variáveis dos modelos anteriores (modelo 4). Resultados: Foram estudadas 998 mulheres, das quais 121 (12,1%) fumaram e 246 (24,6%) referiram ter consumido bebida alcoólica na gravidez. O consumo isolado de álcool foi três vezes maior (18,6%) do que o consumo apenas de tabaco (6,1%). O consumo combinado de tabaco e álcool durante a gestação foi de 6,0%, sem diferença segundo a faixa etária das crianças avaliadas (p>0.05). Não houve diferença nas médias do escore cognitivo segundo o consumo das substâncias em nenhum modelo. Consumo concomitante foi associado a menor média dos escores em ambas as subescalas de comunicação (diferença de 1,12 pontos para comunicação receptiva, IC95% 0,45 a 1,79; 1,19 pontos para comunicação expressiva, IC95% 0,31 a 2,07) e motoras (diferença de 1,20 pontos na subescala motora fina, IC95% 0,55 a 1,85; 0,70 pontos para subescala motora grossa, IC95% 0,13 a 1,28), em torno de um ponto em média, comparado com nenhum consumo de tabaco e álcool. Conclusão: Consumo concomitante de tabaco e álcool teve efeito significativo, porém pequeno, na média dos escores de comunicação e motores, mas não na subescala cognitiva. / Introduction: Fetal exposure to large amounts of toxic compounds resulting from the consumption of tobacco and alcohol during pregnancy can lead to problems such as preterm birth, low birth weight, miscarriage and disorders in child development. This association has recently been the subject of several studies, but the results are contradictory due to differences in methods and samples. Objective: To study the association between the consumption of tobacco and/or alcohol by pregnant women and child development between 13 and 30 months of age. Methods: This is a descriptive and analytical, prospective study of a cohort of convenience initiated prenatally (2010), assessed at birth and from the beginning of the second year of life (2011-2013) in the city of Ribeirão Preto, Brazil. The dependent variable was the mean score of the performance of children in the five subscales of the Bayley Scales of Infant and Toddler Development ® third edition - screening test (Bayley - III®). The explanatory variable was the use of tobacco and/or alcohol during pregnancy rated as no consumption, isolated consumption of tobacco and alcohol and concomitant consumption of the substances. The differences between the mean scores in the five subscales were compared using linear regression in four models: adjusted for age of test application proposed in the technical manual of the scale (model 1); adjusted by age groups, for tobacco and/or alcohol use during pregnancy and maternal characteristics of pregnancy and childbirth (model 2); adjusted by age groups, for tobacco and/or alcohol use during pregnancy and variables related to children in the follow-up (model 3); adjusted for all the variables of the previous models (model 4). Results: 998 women were studied, 121 of them (12.1%) smoked and 246 (24.6%) reported having consumed alcohol in pregnancy. The isolated alcohol consumption was three times higher (18.6%) than the consumption of tobacco only (6.1%). The combined use of tobacco and alcohol during pregnancy was 6.0%, with no difference according to the child\'s age group (p> 0.05). There was no difference in mean cognitive score based on consumption of substances in any model. Concomitant intake was associated with lower mean scores in both communication subscales (1.12 points difference for receptive communication, 95% CI 0.45 to 1.79; 1.19 points for expressive communication, 95% CI 0.31 to 2.07) and motor subscale (1.20 points difference in the fine motor subscale, 95% CI 0.55 to 1.85; 0.70 points for gross motor subscale, 95% CI 0.13 to 1.28), around a point on average compared with no consumption of tobacco and alcohol. Conclusion: concomitant consumption of tobacco and alcohol had a significant effect, however small, in the mean score of the communication and motor subscales, but not in the cognitive subscale.

Exposure cigarette smoke (CS) during prenatal life is the leading cause of preventable premature death. In this study, we explored the hypothesis that in vitro exposure of fetal lung cells to cigarette smoke extract (CSE) may result in the alteration of apoptosis through activation of caspase-3. Alongside we compared the responses of fetal lung cells with A549 cells and rat periodontal ligament (PDL) fibroblasts exposed to CSE in a dose dependent manner. Caspase-3 activity and inhibition was measured using a fluorometric assay. Cell viability in smoke exposed cells was measured using MTT formazan assay. Caspase-3 expression and cellular localization was detected by western blot analysis and immunofluorescence. Our results indicate that caspase-3 activity was significantly (p < 0.05) elevated and cell viability was significantly inhibited in fetal rat lung cells exposed to 10% or 15 % (v/v) CSE. No significant differences were observed in the caspase-3 activity or cellular viability in A549 cells and rat PDL fibroblasts exposed to 5%, 10% or 15% (v/v) CSE. Activation of caspase-3 in fetal lung connective tissue and alveolar epithelial cells may be one of the reasons for the developmental pulmonary toxicity induced by CSE.