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A range of mesoporous materials based on SBA-15 have been prepared and characterised. The materials were templated by neutral block copolymer P123, and typically have a hexagonal (p6mm) pore structure, with high surface areas and narrow pore size distributions. The removal of the surfactant template by calcination and solvent extraction has been investigated. The aqueous stability of this material, and the hydrolysis of the surface was studied. Organic functional groups were incorporated into the silica surface by co-condensation, or by post synthesis grafting. A range of functional groups were incorporated, including amine, carboxy, allyl and thiol groups. The pore size of the materials was controlled by the addition of trimethoxybenzene during synthesis, which significantly increased the pore size and uptake capacity of the materials. The adsorption of CALB by SBA-15 was investigated, with support materials extracted by calcination or solvent extraction. Rapid uptake at high loading was observed, with a maximum loading of 450 mg g-1 measured. The leaching of the enzyme from the support was investigated, and found to be high with unfunctionalised supports. The leaching from functionalised supports incorporating sulfur groups was significantly reduced. The activity of the immobilised CALB was measured by tributyrin hydrolysis in aqueous media, and by enantioselective transesterification of (R)-1-phenylethanol in organic media. The effect of surface functionalisation for reusability and thermal stability in aqueous systems was investigated. Preliminary studies of supported CALB for dynamic kinetic resolution were carried out, with an investigation of acidic zeolites and a mesoporous supported catalyst for 1-phenylethanol racemisation. The encapsulation of immobilised CALB was investigated, and the activity and reusability of these systems studied.

Mesoporous monocrystalline metal oxides (e.g. Co₃O₄, Cr₂O₃, NiO, CeO₂, In₂O₃ and WO₃) templated by SBA-15 or KIT-6 were synthesised successfully by using a simple solvent-free approach, the so-called solid-liquid method, which was the principal development of methodology in this project. A metal-containing precursor, whose melting point is lower than its decomposition temperature, was directly ground with a mesoporous silica and impregnated into the pores of the silica template after melting when the temperature was increased above its melting point. The liquid precursor then decomposed to form metal oxide inside the silica pores when the temperature was further increased to its decomposition temperature and crystallization temperature of the oxide. The structural characterisations of these porous metal oxides were performed by using TEM, XRD and N₂ adsorption/desorption techniques. The solid-liquid method is convenient and solvent-free. On the other hand, its limitation is that the precursor must have a melting point lower than its decomposition temperature. A novel porous single crystal of rutile TiO₂ as well as anatase nanocrystal-silica composite was also synthesised successfully for the first time using SBA-15 and KIT-6 as templates. These materials have interesting properties of proton conductivity, Li insertion and photoactivity. Likewise, the characterisation of porous TiO₂ was achieved by using XRD, TEM, SAED and N₂ adsorption/desorption. The residual SiO₂ component in porous TiO₂ was detected by using the EDX technique. Porous cubic metal oxides of Co₃O₄, NiO, CeO₂ and In₂O₃ were prepared using novel mesoporous silicas FDU-12 and SBA-16, which contain spherical nanocavities linked together by smaller windows. These porous materials have larger surface areas than those templated by SBA-15 and KIT-6. Unlike the cubic metal oxides, syntheses of porous crystals of non-cubic metal oxides such as rhombohedral Cr₂O₃, Fe₂O₃ and hexagonal TiO₂, WO₃ were not successful when using cage-containing mesoporous silicas as templates. The three-dimensional arrangements of nanospheres in porous crystals of cubic oxides mentioned above were observed by TEM and the corresponding larger surface areas were confirmed by N₂ adsorption/desorption technique. Additionally, fabrication of porous crystals of other metal oxides such as MgO, ZnO and ZrO₂ were unsuccessful by using either mesoporous silicas or mesoporous carbons as templates. Possible drawbacks of using mesoporous silica and carbon as templates were discussed.

Mesoporous silica particles are of significant interest for biomedical applications due to their good general biocompatibility compared to other nanoparticle matrices such as quantum dots, high specific surface areas up to 1000 m2/g, and extreme synthetic tunability in terms of particle size, pore size and topology, core material, and surface functionalization. For one application, drug delivery, mesoporous silica nanoparticles (MSNs) of two pore structures, MCM-41 – parallel, hexagonally ordered pores approximately 3 nm in diameter – and wormhole (WO) – interconnected, disordered pores also approximately 3 nm in diameter – were synthesized with particle diameters under 100 nm. Additionally, a magnetic Fe3O4 nanoparticle core was incorporated into Fe3O4-core WO-MS-shell particles. The particles were loaded with doxorubicin, a chemotherapeutic, and the drug release into phosphate buffered saline (PBS, 10 mM, pH 7.4) at 37 °C was monitored by fluorescence spectroscopy. The data were fit to three models: Korsmeyer-Peppas, first order exponential release, and Weibull. The Korsmeyer-Peppas model provided useful information concerning the kinetics and mechanism of drug release from each MSN type. A small but statistically significant difference in the release kinetics was found due to the different pore topologies. A much larger kinetic effect was observed due to the inclusion of an iron oxide core. Applying a static magnetic field to the Fe3O4-core WO-MS shell particles did not have a significant impact on the doxorubicin release. This is the first time that the effects of pore topology and iron oxide core have been isolated from pore diameter and particle size for these materials. In vitro cell studies were conducted to determine the cytotoxicity of the bare and doxorubicin-loaded materials against three cancerous cell lines – A549 human lung carcinoma cells, HEC50CO human endometrial cancer cells, and CT26 mouse colon cancer cells. The MCM-41 and WO MSNs generally displayed similar toxicities within each cell line, and the Fe3O4-core WO-MS shell particles were less toxic. Doxorubicin-loaded particles generally displayed greater toxicity than bare MSNs, but the A549 cells were very resistant to all concentrations of MSNs tested. For another biomedical application, tissue phantom development, mesoporous silica particles with approximately 10 μm diameters and C18 surface functionalization were evaluated for their use as a substrate for optical tissue phantoms. Tissue phantoms are synthetic imitations of biological material, and C18-modified silica provides a substrate that is simple to load with optically active biological molecules. The molecules are then hydrophobically trapped to maintain a clear optical boundary between the biological loading within the particle and an aqueous suspension gel. Several preparation techniques were evaluated for the dispersal of hydrophobic particles in aqueous media, and qualitative analysis indicated that surfactant coating of the outer surface could fully disperse the hydrophobic particle while maintaining the clear optical boundary. A novel analysis was developed to provide a single numerical indicator of clustering for a quantitative assessment of particle dispersal in tissue phantoms.

New approaches through grafting initiators onto the surface of inner-wall of mesoporous silica to synthesize polymer inside the nano-channels to obtain mesoporous silica/polymer nanocomposites were developed and investigated. Using the newly developed approach, PMMA was successfully synthesized through free radical polymerization and nylon 6 though in situ anionic ring-opening polymerization inside the nano-channels. The spherical mesoporous silica/PMMA composites we obtained showed a higher degradation temperature and narrower degradation range than pure commercially available PMMA. Spherical PMMA capsules were obtained after the silica network was dissolved with hydrofluoric acid, these pure PMMA spheres had the same thermal properties and morphology as they had with in the composites. The BMS/nylon 6 nanocomposites were spheres with the same diameter as pure BMS. About 50 wt% of the composites was newly synthesized nylon 6. The synthesized nylon 6 was proven to contain both α-form crystallite and γ-form crystallites with covalent bonds with the surface of silica inside the nano-channels.

A range of mesoporous materials based on SBA-15, KIT-6 and FDU-12 have been prepared using neutral block copolymers Pluronic P123 and F127 and characterised using methods including electron microscopy and nitrogen adsorption. Typically the materials have a hexagonal (p6mm) or cubic (Fm3m and Ia-3d) symmetry and pore geometry and are rendered porous by either calcination or solvent extraction. Organic functional groups were incorporated into the silica walls of the materials by co-condensation in the form of propyl thiols and additives in the form of alkanes were added to control pore size and geometry. The effects of temperature, additives, organic functionalisation, synthesis time and sol-gel composition were investigated and the resulting materials were tested as supports for protein adsorption, enzyme immobilisation, and drug delivery. Two FDU-12 materials of differing entrance and cavity sizes were used to adsorb a range of proteins with molecular weight 17 to 160 kDa to determine if there was a size exclusion effect. It was seen that the larger pore material was able to adsorb proteins of a larger size (molecular weight 105 kDa) and an exclusion effect was observed when the dimension of the proteins became too great (larger than 130 kDa). There was no clear trend for the smaller pore material where each protein was adsorbed to some extent by the material but apart from the smallest protein, myoglobin, mainly on the surface and not within the pores. The adsorption of the lipase B from Candida Antartica, CALB, was studied on a range of mesoporous supports with their templates removed by either calcination or extraction. The effect of pore size and functionalisation was investigated in terms of maximum loading and rate of loading. By functionalising the KIT-6 material the maximum loading of CALB was reduced from 45.5 to 32 mg/g whereas functionalising the FDU-12 material increased the maximum from 33 to 42.5 mg/g. The activity of the immobilised CALB was measured by enantioselective transesterification of (R)-1-phenylethanol in methyltetrabutyl ether (MTBE). The effect of loading, surface functionalisation and reusability in organic media were investigated. Functionalisation with propyl thiol was seen to increase the rate of conversion after 30 minutes for both KIT-6 and FDU-12 materials. Selected FDU-12 and KIT-6 materials with window sizes from 6 to 12 nm and with and without functionalisation were used to carry out a drug release study using Bovine serum albumin (BSA). BSA was loaded onto the material and the uptake quantified using nitrogen adsorption, elemental analysis, and thermogravimetric analysis. The release of BSA into simulated body fluid at 37 ºC was measured using HPLC. Functionalisation was seen to have little effect. The type of cubic morphology controlled the rate at which the BSA was released. The KIT-6 3D channel material exhibited a burst release initially followed by a steady release of BSA whereas the mesocage FDU-12 material had a slower and more linear release profile, closer to that desired.

Mesoporous silicates are excellent materials for supported catalysis due to their ease of functionalization, tunable pore size and high surface areas. Mesoporous silicates have been utilized in a variety of applications such as drug delivery scaffolds and catalyst supports. Functionalization of the surface can be achieved by either grafting of alkoxy silanes or co-condensation of the organosilane with the inorganic silica source. My research in this area can be divided into two components. In the first, we address the significant issue of metal contamination after reactions that are catalyzed by transition metals. In the second, we examine the design of new catalysts based on organic/inorganic composites. Ruthenium catalyzed processes such as olefin metathesis or asymmetric hydrogenation, are often underutilized due to the difficulty of removing the ruthenium by-products. Attempts to remove ruthenium involve treating the solution with a scavenging reagent followed by silica chromatography. Often these scavenging agents are expensive phosphines or toxic agents like lead tetra-acetate. SBA-15 functionalized with aminopropyl triethoxysilane displays a high affinity for ruthenium. Furthermore, it can be utilized to remove ruthenium by-products from olefin metathesis or hydrogenation reactions without the need for silica chromatography. We have also prepared sulfur-functionalized mesoporous silicates that have a high affinity for palladium. The materials after loading prove to be active catalysts for a variety of palladium catalyzed processes such as Suzuki-Miyaura and Sonogashira couplings. The catalysts are recyclable with moderate loss of activity and structure, depending on the method of incorporation of the thiol. We have characterized the as-synthesized and used catalysts by nitrogen sorption, TEM, X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy (XPS) and a variety of homogeneity tests were performed on the catalysts. Periodic mesoporous organosilicates (PMOs) are a well known class of inorganic-organic hybrid materials. The majority of PMOs prepared utilize simple organic bridges such as ethyl, phenyl or biphenyl. The use of a chiral organic bridging group, such as BINAP, allows the synthesis of chiral PMOs with possible applications in catalysis and separation science. The synthesis of a triethoxysilyl functionalized BINAP as well as its incorporation into PMO materials with 4,4’-bistriethoxysilyl biphenyl or tetraethylorthosilicate as co-silica sources are described. / Thesis (Ph.D, Chemistry) -- Queen's University, 2009-04-20 10:49:13.443

Orientadores: Heloise de Oliveira Pastore, Leonardo Marchese / Tese (doutorado) - Universidade Estadual de Campinas, Instituto de Química / Made available in DSpace on 2018-08-16T12:57:15Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 Gallo_JeanMarcelRibeiro_D.pdf: 4780624 bytes, checksum: 5426a4e169601ec9fd875fbe271a36c9 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010 / Resumo: Esse trabalho teve como objetivo a aplicação de peneiras moleculares mesoporosas de sílica como suporte para metal em aplicações em eletrodos na Célula a combustível a metanol direto (DMFC). As peneiras moleculares mais importantes, MCM-41, MCM-48 e SBA-15, foram escolhidas. Em um primeiro momento a reprodutibilidade das sínteses foi verificada. Como pesquisa lateral foi estudada a acidez de superfície da SBA-15 contendo alumínio obtida por síntese direta. Além disso, foi desenvolvida a primeira síntese direta para a [Al]-SBA-15 Sílica é um isolante elétrico e, portanto, não pode ser utilizada como um eletrodo, deste modo, uma nova família de compósitos chamada Carbonos Cerâmicos Mesoporosos (MCC) foi preparada pela adição de grafite comercial na síntese das sílicas mesoporosas (MCM-41, MCM-48 ou SBA-15). A grafite não influenciou na formação da mesofase de sílica, de qualquer maneira, a MCC-MCM-41 e a MCC-MCM-48 cresceram na superfície da grafite. As MCCs preparadas com razão em massa sílica/carbono de 1/1 e 1/1.25 apresentaram condutividades elétricas similares enquanto MCCs com menos quantidade de carbono se mostraram isolantes elétricos. As MCCs(1/1) modificadas com 20 % em massa de paládio foram usadas na DMFC chegando no máximo a desempenhos 10 vezes menores que o do sistema usando o suporte comercia Vulcan XC-72R. Esse comportamento foi atribuida a menos condutividade elétrica dos MCCs. Para aumentar a condutividade elétrica dos MCCs(1/1), o agente direcionador orgânico usado na síntese da fase silícica foi carbononizado ( ao invez de calcinado, como feito anteriormente) Alternativamente, os MCCs foram sintetizados com uma razão em massa sílica/carbono de 1/3. Os testes dos MCCs contendo 20 % em massa de platina no cátodo da DMFC mostraram melhores resultados para a MCC-SBA-15(1/3) e a MCC-MCM-48(1/1) pirolisada. Por outro lado, o despenho do sistema usando o suporte Vulcan-XC-72R foi o dobro. Modificados com 60 % em massa da liga PtRu, o MCC-SBA-15(1/3) e o MCC-MCM-48(1/1) pirolisado foram aplicados no ânodo da DMFC, alcançando desempenhos 20 e 40 % maiores que a Vulcan XC-72R. / Abstract: The present work aimed at using mesoporous silica as metal support for Direct Methanol Fuel Cell (DMFC) electrodes. The most important mesoporous silica, MCM-41, MCM-48 and SBA-15, were chosen. In a first moment their synthesis were verified with respect to the reproductibility. As side results, the surface acidity of aluminum containing SBA-15 obtained by direct synthesis was also studied and it is also reported the first [Al]-SBA-16 obtained by direct synthesis was reported. Silica is electrically insulating and thus cannot be used directly in a cell electrode, thus it was reported here the preparation of the novel composite named Mesoporous Carbon Ceramics (MCC) obtained by the addition of commercial graphite into the mesoporous silica synthesis (MCM-41, MCM-48 or SBA-15). The graphite did not influence in the formation of the silica mesophase, however, MCC-MCM-41 and MCC-MCM-48 grow on the graphite surface. The MCCs prepared with silica/carbon weight ratio of 1/1 and 1/1.25 presented similar electrical conductivities while lower carbon loading MCCs were found insulating. The MCCs(1/1) modified with 20 wt % of platinum were used on Direct Methanol Fuel Cell electrodes (DMFC) reaching performances more ten 10 times lower than that of a system using the commercial metal support Vulcan XC-72R, probably due to their lower electrical conductivity. To increase the electrical conductivity of the MCCs(1/1), the surfactant used to synthesize the silica phase was carbonized (instead of calcined as done for the previous materials). Alternatively, MCCs was synthesized with silica/carbon weight ratio of 1/3. The test of 20 wt. % platinum-containing MCCs on the cathode of the DMFC showed that the best results were obtained for the MCC-SBA-15(1/3) and for the template-pyrolysed MCC-MCM-48(1/1), however, the performance was approximately half of that of the system using Vulcan-XC-72R. When modified with 60 wt % of PtRu alloy, MCC-SBA-15(1/3) and to the template-pyrolysed MCC-MCM-48(1/1) and applied on the DMFC anode, the performances at 343 K was ca. 20 and 40 % higher that that obtained for the system using Vulcan XC-72R. / Doutorado / Quimica Inorganica / Doutor em Ciências

The results presented in this thesis demonstrate the first synthesis of several nanostructured transition metal oxides and lithium containing transition metal oxides. Their uses in lithium-ion batteries and/or as magnetic materials have been investigated. The first example of two and three dimensional mesoporous Fe₂O₃ has been prepared by using the soft templating (surfactant) method. The materials have amorphous walls and exhibit superparamagnetic behaviour. By using a hard template route, a mesoporous α-Fe₂O₃ with highly crystalline walls has been synthesized. Its unique magnetic behaviour, distinct from bulk α-Fe₂O₃, nanoparticulate α-Fe₂O₃, and mesoporous Fe₂O₃ with disordered walls, has been demonstrated. The hard template method was also used to prepare nanowire and mesoporous Co₃O₄, β-MnO₂ and MnO₃ with crystalline walls. Their electrochemical properties as electrodes in Li-ion batteries have been investigated. Mesoporous β-MnO₂ can accommodate 0.9 Li/Mn in stark contrast to bulk β-MnO₂ which cannot accommodate Li. To prepare mesoporous materials which cannot be obtained directly by the hard template method, a post-templating route has been developed. Mesoporous Fe₃O₄, γ-Fe₂O₃, and Mn3O4 with ordered mesostructures and highly crystalline walls have been obtained by post-synthesis reduction/oxidation treatments. All the materials show unique magnetic properties compared with nanoparticulate and bulk materials. Also, the first example of lithium containing mesoporous material, LT-LiCoO₂, was synthesized by first preparing mesoporous Co₃O₄, then reacting this with LiOH to form LT-LiCoO₂, with retention of the ordered nanostructure. The nanostructured LT-LiCoO₂ compounds demonstrate superior performance compared with normal or nanoparticulate LT-LiCoO₂, when used as intercalation electrodes in lithium batteries. Finally, monodispersed Mn₃O₄ nanoparticles (diameter ~ 8 nm) with a core-shell structure (a highly crystalline Mn₃O₄ core encased in a thin MnO₂ shell) have been prepared for the first time. Ordered three-dimensional arrays form by spontaneous self-assembly. Magnetic measurements demonstrated that the self-assembled three-dimensional arrays exhibit spin-glass behaviour, rather than the anticipated superparamagnetic behaviour for isolated nanoparticles. Such behaviour is interpreted as arising from strong interactions between the core (crystallized Mn₃O₄) and shell (MnO₂).