Ceria (cerium oxide) nanomaterials, or nanoceria, have commercial catalysis and energy storage applications. The cerium atoms on the surface of nanoceria can store or release oxygen, cycling between Ce3+ and Ce4+, and can therefore act as a therapeutic to relieve oxidative stress within living systems. Nanoceria dissolution is present in acidic environments in vivo. In order to accurately define the fate of nanoceria in vivo, nanoceria dissolution or stabilization is observed in vitro using acidic aqueous environments. Nanoceria stabilization is a known problem even during its synthesis; in fact, a carboxylic acid, citric acid, is used in many synthesis protocols. Citric acid adsorbs onto nanoceria surfaces, capping particle formation and creating stable dispersions with extended shelf lives. Nanoceria was shown to agglomerate in the presence of some carboxylic acids over a time scale of up to 30 weeks, and degraded in others, at pH 4.5 (representing that of phagolysosomes). Sixteen carboxylic acids were tested: citric, glutaric, tricarballylic, α-hydroxybutyric, β-hydroxybutyric, adipic, malic, acetic, pimelic, succinic, lactic, tartronic, isocitric, tartaric, dihydroxymalonic, and glyceric acid. Each acid was introduced as 0.11 M, into pH 4.5 iso-osmotic solutions. Controls such as ammonium nitrate, sodium nitrate, and water were also tested to assess their effects on nanoceria dissolution and stabilization. To further test stability, nanoceria suspensions were subject to light and dark milieu, simulating plant environments and biological systems, respectively. Light induced nanoceria agglomeration in some, but not all ligands, and is likely to be a result of UV irradiation. Light initiates free radicals generated from the ceria nanoparticles. Some of the ligands completely dissolved the nanoceria when exposed to light. Citric and malic acids form coordination complexes with cerium on the surface of the ceria nanoparticle that can inhibit agglomeration. This approach identifies key functional groups required to prevent nanoceria agglomeration. The impact of each ligand on nanoceria was analyzed and will ultimately describe the fate of nanoceria in vivo. In addition, simulated biological fluid (SBF) exposure can change nanoceria’s surface properties and biological activity. The citrate-coated nanoceria physicochemical properties such as size, morphology, crystallinity, surface elemental composition, and charge were determined before and after exposure to simulated lung, gastric, and intestinal fluids. SBF exposure resulted in either loss or overcoating of nanoceria’s surface citrate by some of the SBF components, greater nanoceria agglomeration, and small changes in the zeta potential. Nanocomposites are comprised of a polymer matrix embedded with nanoparticles. These nanoparticles can alter material and optical properties of the polymer. SR-399 (dipentaerythritol pentaacrylate) is a fast cure, low skin irritant monomer that contains five carbon-carbon double bonds (C=C). It is a hard, flexible polymer, and also resistant to abrasion. It can be used as a sealant, binder, coating, and as a paint additive. In this case, metal oxide nanoparticles were added to the monomer prior to polymerization. Titania nanoparticles are known to absorb UV light due to their photocatalytic nature. Titania nanoparticles were chosen due to their high stability, non-toxicity, and are relatively quick, easy, and inexpensive to manufacture. Channels in thin monomer films were created using a ferrofluid manipulated by magnetic fields. The mechanical properties of a microfluidic device by rapid photopolymerization is dependent on the crosslinking gradient observed throughout the depth of the film. Quantitative information regarding the degree of polymerization of thin film polymers polymerized by free radical polymerization through the application of UV light is crucial to estimate material properties. In general, less cure leads to more flexibility, and more cure leads to brittleness. The objective was to quantify the degree of polymerization to approximate the C=C concentration and directly relate it to the mechanical properties of the polymer. Polymerization of C=C groups was conducted using a photoinitiator and an UV light source from one surface of a thin film of a multifunctional monomer. The C=C fraction in the film was found to vary with film depth and UV light intensity. The extents of conversion and crosslinking estimates were compared to local mechanical moduli and optical properties. A mathematical model linking the mechanical properties to the degree of polymerization, C=C composition, as a function of film depth and light intensity was then developed. For a given amount of light energy, one can predict the hardness and modulus of elasticity. The correlation between the photopolymerization and the mechanical properties can be used to optimize the mechanical properties of thin films within the manufacturing and energy constraints, and should be scalable to other multifunctional monomer systems.

M. Tech. (Department of Chemistry, Faculty of Applied and Computer Sciences) Vaal University of Technology. / The polymer and their blended fibres provide good surface and intermolecular chemistry that bring additional functionalities and structural changes that can be adapted for new usages. Natural polymers are known to possess desirable qualities in terms of biocompatibility and biodegradability. The natural polymers are chosen due to their abundance but have difficulties in the preparations hence the addition of a synthetic polymer is vital. An important property of the polymer blended fibres is its miscibility which affects the mechanical properties, the morphology and degradation. Metal oxide nanoparticles embedded into polymer blended fibres enhances the performances of the polymer blended fibre permeability, selectivity, strength, and hydrophilicity. This study reports on the synthesis and characterization of zein, collagen nanofibres, zein/PVA fibre blends, iron oxide, manganese oxide nanoparticles, Fe2O3/zein /PVA and Mn2O3/zein/PVA fibre nanocomposite blends. The zein nanofibres and zein/PVA fibre blends were electrospun using electrospinning technique. Parameters such as the concentration and voltage were investigated. These parameters had an effect on the fibre morphology. The electrospun zein nanofibres and zein/PVA fibre blends were characterized using scanning electron microscopy (SEM), UV-Visible spectroscopy, Photoluminescence (PL), X-ray diffraction (XRD), Fourier transformer infrared (FTIR) spectroscopy and Thermal gravimetric analysis (TGA). The SEM results illustrated that an increase in the concentration of zein nanofibres improved the morphology of the fibres into ribbon like shape and had an effect on the average diameter size. The addition of PVA into zein nanofibres enhanced electrospinnabilty and the mechanical strength of zein was dependent on the presence of PVA. The optical properties, XRD, FTIR and thermal studies confirmed that zein/PVA (80/20) blend weight ratio was miscible and the other blend weight ratios remained immiscible, this was due to stronger interaction of hydrophilic performance of zein and PVA through hydrogen bonding. Therefore, fibre blend weight ratios of zein/PVA (90/10, 80/20, 70/30, 60/40 and 50/50) were successfully fabricated. The optimisation of collagen nanofibres favoured electrospraying instead of electrospinning hence collagen nanofibres could not be fabricated. Iron oxide nanoparticles was synthesized using hydrothermal method and manganese oxide nanoparticles was synthesized through co-precipitation method. The TEM results revealed well defined shapes of metal oxide nanoparticles illustrating that the increment of temperature had an influence on the crystallinity and particle size of 𝛼-Fe2O3 , 𝛼-MnO2 and 𝛼-Mn2O3 nanoparticles. The XRD confirmed the crystalline pattern of the metal oxide nanoparticles were of rhombohedral 𝛼-Fe2O3 structures (JCPDS 00-033-0664), cryptomelane phase 𝛼-MnO2 (JCPDS No. 29-1020) and orthorhombic crystalline phase of 𝛼-Mn2O3 (JCPDS No. 04-007-088). The metal oxide nanoparticles were thermally stable. Three different concentrations (4.25 wt%, 4.75 wt% and 5.25 wt %) of 𝛼-Fe2O3 and 𝛼- Mn2O3 were embedded onto zein/PVA (80/20) fibre blends and electrospun. The SEM, optical properties, XRD and TGA confirmed that the embedment of metal oxide nanoparticles enhanced the zein/PVA fibre blends performance, mechanical strength and resistance to wear therefore 5.25 wt% of 𝛼-Fe2O3/zein/PVA and 𝛼-Mn2O3/zein/PVA were explored further for the adsorption of chrysoidine G removal from wastewater. The adsorption studies of zein/PVA (80/20), 𝛼-Fe2O3/zein/PVA and 𝛼-Mn2O3/zein/PVA were carried out in a batch system on the effects of contact time, pH, initial concentration and adsorbent dosage. All the nanoadsorbents could rapidly reach adsorption equilibrium within 30 min at room temperature. The maximum removal efficiency of chrysoidine G of zein/PVA, 𝛼-Mn2O3/zein/PVA was higher than 𝛼-Fe2O3/zein/PVA. The dye adsorption equilibrium data were well-fit with Langmuir isotherm rather than Freundlich isotherm. The comparison of kinetic models revealed that the overall adsorption process was described well by pseudo second-order kinetics. The polymeric materials were cost effective hence regeneration studies were implemented for three cycles. These nanoadsorbents are easily available and are expected to be economical.

The thesis is divided into two parts. The first part deals with the research work carried out on the synthesis and chemical modification of nanomaterials whereas the second part describes the preparation and characterisation of polymer films and their use as separation membranes. Part I of the thesis describing the synthetic strategies and chemical manipulation schemes employed on various types of nanomaterials is divided into six chapters. Chapter 1 describes a chemist’s approach towards synthesizing and tuning the properties of different classes of nanomaterials along with a brief account of their potential applications. Chapter 2 of the thesis describes the synthesis and characterization of various metal nanostructures (viz. nanoparticles, nanorods, nanosheets etc.) of nickel, ruthenium, rhodium and iridium using a solvothermal procedure. Chapter 3 deals with the nanoparticles of the novel oxide metal ReO3. ReO3@Au, ReO3@Ag, ReO3@SiO2 and ReO3@TiO2 core-shell nanostructures with ReO3 as the core nanoparticle have been synthesized through a two-step process and characterized. Dependence of the plasmon band of the ReO3 nanoparticles on the interparticle separation has been examined by incorporating the nanoparticles in various polymer matrices and the results compared with those obtained with gold nanoparticles. Chapter 4 presents the dispersion of nanostructures of metal oxides such as TiO2, Fe3O4 and ZnO in solvents of differing polarity (water, DMF and toluene) in the presence of several surfactants. In Chapter 5 of the thesis, fluorous chemical method of separation of metallic and semiconducting single-walled carbon nanotubes is described. This method involves the selective reaction of the diazonium salt of a fluorous aniline with the metallic nanotubes in an aqueous medium and subsequent extraction of the same in a fluorous solvent leaving the semiconducting nanotubes in the aqueous layer. Chapter 6 presents the studies on the interaction of single walled nanotubes and graphene with various halogen molecules (I2, IBr, ICl and Br2) of varying electron affinity probed by employing Raman spectroscopy and electronic absorption spectroscopy. Part II of the thesis describes a general method of fabricating ultrathin free-standing cross-linked polymer films and their subsequent use as separation membranes. A particular class of 1-D nanomaterials namely cadmium hydroxide nanostrands were used in this method throughout, to generate a sacrificial layer upon which the polymer films were generated.

Die Bildungsmechanismen von Metalloxiden, speziell der Eisen- und Aluminiumoxide, im wässrigen Medium sind aufgrund der Vielzahl kurzlebiger Intermediate und komplexen Reaktionspfaden nur wenig verstanden. Ein Verständnis der Reaktionsmechanismen kann jedoch mit Hilfe von zeitaufgelösten Untersuchungen wesentlich vertieft werden. Der Fokus dieser Arbeit liegt auf der Verwendung von zeitaufgelösten Untersuchungen, die größtenteils auf röntgenbasierenden Analyseverfahren beruhen, um die intermediären Phasen direkt unter realistischen Bedingungen zu identifizieren. Im ersten Teil dieser Arbeit erfolgte die Untersuchung der Reaktionsmechanismen von Eisenoxiden und -oxidhydroxiden direkt in einer stabilisator-unterstützten Synthese. Nach einer Optimierung der instrumentellen Aufbauten, wurden erstmals zeitaufgelöste, simultane Röntgenkleinwinkelstreu- und Röntgenabsorptionsspektroskopie-Experimente an einem Eisenoxid-System durchgeführt, indem ein akustischer Levitator als Probenhalter verwendet wurde. Als Unterstützung wurden weitere analytische Methoden verwendet, um ein Gesamtbild über die intermediären Spezies in den drei vorliegenden Reaktionsmechanismen zu erhalten. Mit Hilfe von Röntgenphotoelektronenspektroskopie in Kombination mit einem Mikrojet konnten Spezies, wie Eisen-oxo-Oligomere, als Intermediate in den frühen Stadien des Hydrolyseprozesses von Akaganeit-Nanopartikeln detektiert werden. Das erste Photoelektronenspektrum für diese Spezies konnte gezeigt werden. Im letzten Teil dieser Arbeit wurden zeitaufgelöste Untersuchungen an einem Aluminiumoxo- System durchgeführt. Es gelang erstmals durch die Kombination von Weitwinkelstreuexperimenten mit dem akustischen Levitator, die Kristallisation des Al13-Clusters in einer sulfathaltigen-Lösung als Aluminiumsulfat-Cluster Al13SO4 in situ zu detektieren. / The formation mechanisms of metal oxides, especially iron and aluminium oxides, in aqueous media are poorly understood due to the large number of short-lived intermediates and complex reaction paths. However, an understanding of the reaction mechanisms can be considerably deepened with the help of time-resolved investigations. This work focuses on the use of time-resolved investigations, which rest largely on X-ray based analysis techniques, to identify the intermediate phases directly under realistic conditions. In the first part of this work, the reaction mechanisms of iron oxides and iron oxide hydroxides were investigated directly in a stabilizer-assisted synthesis. Time-resolved, simultaneous small-angle X-ray scattering and X-ray absorption spectroscopy experiments were performed on an iron oxide system for the first time using an acoustic levitator as sample holder after the optimisation of the instrumental set-ups. Further analytical methods were used to obtain detailed insights of the intermediate species in the three reaction mechanisms. Using X-ray photoelectron spectroscopy in combination with a microjet, species such as iron oxo oligomers could be detected as intermediates in the early stages of the hydrolysis process of Akaganeit nanoparticles. The first photoelectron spectrum for this species could be shown. In the last part of this work, time-resolved investigations were carried out on an aluminium oxo system. In situ-investigations were possible by combining wide-angle X-ray scattering experiments with the acoustic levitator. For the first time it was possible to detect the early stage crystallization of the Al13 cluster in a sulfate-containing solution as an aluminum sulfate cluster Al13SO4 directly in solution.