This thesis aims to investigate the stresses at mid-ocean ridge offsets, and particularly at the particular class of offsets represented by oceanic microplates. Amongthese, the Easter microplate is one of the best surveyed. This thesis first studies the stress field associated with mid-ocean ridges and simple types of ridge offsets, and then uses the stress field observed at Easter to constrain the driving mechanism of microplates. Two-dimensional finite element modelling is used to predict the lithospheric stress indicators, which are then compared with observations. Extensional structures at high angles (> 35 ) to ridge trends are often observed at ridge-transform intersections and non-tranform offsets, but remained unexplained until now. This study proposes that the topographic loading created by the elevation of mid-ocean ridges relative to old seafloor is a source of ridge parallel tensile stresses, and shows they can be explained by the rotation of ridge parallel tensile stresses at locked offsets. The elasto-plastic rheology is used to investigate the evolution of normal faults near mid-ocean ridges. It is shown that variations in the lithospheric strength, caused entirely by variations in the brittle layer thickness, can account for the observed variations in fault character with spreading rate and along-axis position. Plasticity is shown to prevent the achievement of large fault throws in thin brittle layers. Consequently, it may be important at fast spreading ridges. A new dynamic model is proposed for Easter microplate. It mainly consists of: 1) driving forces along the East and West Rifts, resulting from the combination of a regional tensile stress with an increasing ridge strength towards rift tips, 2) mantle basal drag resisting the microplate rotation, and contributing with less than 20% to the total resisting torque, and 3) resisting forces along the northern and southern boundaries. To explain both the earthquake focal mechanism evidence and theexistence of compressional ridges in the Nazca plate, the boundary conditions alongthe northern boundary are required to change with time, from completely locked tolocked in the normal direction only. This study does not invalidate the microplate kinematic model proposed by Schouten et al. (1993), but shows that normal resisting forces along the northern and southern boundaries of Easter microplate must exist in order to explain the stress observations. Also, it suggests that ridge strength variations play an important role in the dyamics of mid-ocean ridge overlap regions.

The first objective of the dissertation is to develop a suitable reduced order model capable of investigating the nonlinear mechanical behavior of von-Karman plates under electrostatic actuation. The second objective is to investigate the nonlinear static and dynamic behavior of rectangular microplates under small and large actuating forces. In the first part, we present and compare various approaches to develop reduced order models for the nonlinear von-Karman rectangular microplates actuated by nonlinear electrostatic forces. The reduced-order models aim to investigate the static and dynamic behavior of the plate under small and large actuation forces. A fully clamped microplate is considered. Different types of basis functions are used in conjunction with the Galerkin method to discretize the governing equations. First we investigate the convergence with the number of modes retained in the model. Then for validation purpose, a comparison of the static results is made with the results calculated by a nonlinear finite element model. The linear eigenvalue problem for the plate under the electrostatic force is solved for a wide range of voltages up to pull-in. In the second part, we present an investigation of the static and dynamic behavior of a fully clamped microplate. We investigate the effect of different non-dimensional design parameters on the static response. The forced-vibration response of the plate is then investigated when the plate is excited by a harmonic AC load superimposed to a DC load. The dynamic behavior is examined near the primary and secondary (superharmonic and subharmonic) resonances. The microplate shows a strong hardening behavior due to the cubic nonlinearity of midplane stretching. However, the behavior switches to softening as the DC load is increased. Next, near-square plates are studied to understand the effect of geometric imperfections of microplates. In the final part of the dissertation, we investigate the mechanical behavior of initially curved microplates. Microplates often experience an initial curvature imperfection, due to the micro fabrication process, which affects significantly their mechanical behavior. In this case a clamped-free-clamped-free microplate is considered. We validate the reduced order model by comparing the calculated static behavior and the fundamental natural frequency with those computed by a finite element model. As case studies, we consider two commonly encountered profiles of the initial curvature imperfection and study their effects on both the static and dynamic responses of the microplates. Next, an initially curved microplate made of silicon nitride is studied. The static behavior of the microplate is investigated when applying a DC voltage. Then, the dynamic behavior of the microplate is examined under the application of a harmonic AC voltage, superimposed to a DC voltage. Simulation results calculated by the reduced order model are compared with experimental data for model validation purpose, which show good agreement.

We first describe the methodology for a two-dimensional, elastic deformable microplate modeling approach for continental plate boundaries. Deformable microplate models combine discrete slip on microplate boundaries (faults) with continuous deformation in block interiors. Two idealized models simulating continental collision are presented, one with two microplates and one with four microplates. / Earth and Planetary Sciences

Quality control of food and medicines is largely done using methods recommended in official compendia, including titration and gravimetry, which involve several negative aspects and are at odds with the principles of green analytical chemistry. Enthalpy methods are based on the enthalpy determination of chemical reactions. In the entalpimétrica analysis the quantitative determination of a reagent or catalyst is made through the enthalpy variation of a chemical reaction, that can be measured directly or indirectly. The main approaches for the entalpimetric analysis are thermometric titration, direct injection enthalpymetry (DIE) and flow entalpimetry. However, despite the availability of commercial instruments for this purpose today, these techniques have been replaced and almost disappeared from the literature, probably due to the high cost of microcalorimetry devices and the limitation of the low frequency of analysis, leading to the choice of Other analytical methods. Currently, there is a need for the development of analytical methods that provide quick results, low cost, low reagent consumption and waste disposal, and minimal sample preparation and manipulation. In this study, infrared thermography was, for the first time, combined with enthalpymetry for the determination of different analytes (eg, iron, calcium, sodium, chlorides and acidity) in foods. In this way, the so-called Thermal Infrared Enthalpyimetry (TIE) was established using neutralization, complexation, precipitation and oxidation reactions, in which the temperature variation generated in the reactions for the construction of calibration curves was verified. The TIE was performed on microplates using a multichannel pipette for the addition of the reagents and an infrared camera for monitoring the temperature generated inside the wells after the addition of the reagents. The results of the proposed method were compared with those obtained through conventional (volumetric) techniques recommended in official compendia. In this way, TIE was optimized and validated for the determination of total, fixed and volatile acidity of vinegars, and was also applied in the simultaneous determination of sodium chloride and total acidity of pickle brine. The obtained results showed good agreement with conventional techniques, performing the analyzes in a fast, efficient and with potential to be applied as routine analysis, due to the simplicity, speed and high frequency of analysis. Thus, it has been demonstrated that TIE can be considered an important tool for the determination of several analytes in foods. Also in this work, it was also done the evaluation of the TIE using different cameras (with refrigerated detector or not), in order to verify and compare the performance of infrared cameras for application to TIE. It was verified that a refrigerated camera presents better results, however equipment without refrigerated detector, of lower resolution and of low cost presented excellent and promising results. / O controle de qualidade de alimentos e de medicamentos é feito em grande parte utilizando métodos recomendados nos compêndios oficiais, entre eles a titulação e a gravimetria, os quais envolvem vários aspectos negativos e em desacordo com os princípios da química analítica verde. Métodos entalpimétricos se baseiam na determinação da entalpia das reações químicas. Na análise entalpimétrica é efetuada a determinação quantitativa de um reagente ou catalisador através da variação de entalpia de uma reação química, que pode ser medida direta ou indiretamente. As principais abordagens para a análise entalpimétrica são a titulação termométrica, entalpimetria por injeção direta (DIE, do inglês Direct Inject Entalpimetry) e entalpimetria em fluxo. No entanto, apesar de hoje em dia haver a disponibilidade de instrumentos comerciais para este fim, essas técnicas foram substituídas e quase desapareceram da literatura, provavelmente devido ao custo elevado de dispositivos de microcalorimetria e pela limitação da baixa frequência de análise, levando à escolha de outros métodos analíticos. Atualmente, existe a necessidade do desenvolvimento de métodos analíticos que forneçam resultados rápidos, com baixo custo, pequeno consumo de reagentes e descarte de resíduos, além de mínimo preparo e manipulação da amostra. Neste estudo, a termografia no infravermelho foi, pela primeira vez, combinada com a entalpimetria visando determinação de diferentes analitos (p. ex., ferro, cálcio, sódio, cloretos e acidez) em alimentos. Desta forma, a chamada entalpimetria no infravermelho (TIE, do inglês Thermal Infrared Enthalpimetry) foi estabelecida empregando reações de neutralização, complexação, precipitação e oxirredução, onde foi verificada a variação da temperatura gerada nas reações para a construção de curvas de calibração. A TIE foi realizada em microplacas, empregando pipeta multicanal para a adição dos reagentes e uma câmera no infravermelho para monitoramento de temperatura gerada no interior dos poços após a adição dos reagentes. Os resultados do método proposto foram comparados com aqueles obtidos através de técnicas convencionais (volumétricas) recomendadas nos compêndios oficiais. Desta forma, a TIE foi otimizada e validada para a determinação da acidez total, fixa e volátil de vinagres, e também foi aplicada na determinação simultânea de cloreto de sódio e acidez total da salmoura de picles. Os resultados obtidos mostraram boa concordância com técnicas convencionais, efetuando as análises de maneira rápida, eficaz e com potencial para ser aplicada como análise de rotina, devido à simplicidade, rapidez e elevada frequência de análise. Desta forma, foi demonstrado que a TIE pode ser considerada uma importante ferramenta para a determinação de diversos analitos em alimentos. Ainda neste trabalho, foi feita também a avaliação da TIE usando diferentes câmeras (com detector refrigerado ou não), a fim de verificar e comparar o desempenho de câmeras no infravermelho para aplicação a TIE. Verificou-se que uma câmera refrigerada apresenta melhores resultados, entretanto equipamentos sem detector refrigerado, de menor resolução e de baixo custo apresentaram resultados excelentes e promissores.

Triple junctions form at the intersection of three tectonic plates and are a necessary consequence of new microplate formation. The splitting of a plate into two smaller plates always results in the formation of two triple junctions. As a result, they are fundamental structural elements of ocean floor geodynamics. Their evolution is influenced by the complex interplay of near- and far-field plate dynamics, crustal types, and mantle processes, and they include a wide range of boundary types. The long-term stability and evolution of triple junctions are influenced by continuous plate reorganization, such as in the complex microplate mosaics of the Western Pacific margin. To better understand how triple junctions form and respond to near- and far-field stresses, this study presents a detailed examination of the North Fiji Basin Triple Junction (NFBTJ), which is located within one of the largest and most mature back-arc basins of the Pacific margin. A new geological map of the NFBTJ at a 1:500,000 scale is presented. The mapping provides insight into the factors controlling plate fragmentation and crustal growth during triple junction formation. The map is based on a compilation of more than 50 years of ship-based bathymetry, backscatter data, gravity and magnetics used to reconstruct the spreading history, magmatic productivity, tectonic fabric and origin of geological formations of the basin. These aspects also have important implications for understanding the origins and evolution of large-scale back-arc basin hydrothermal systems. Crustal growth in the NFB is recorded by the area-age relationships of different geological formations identified in the new geological map. The triple junction is the site of volume addition related to enhanced magmatic productivity, with a large Central Volcanic Complex (CVC) (shield volcano and inflated ridge) at its centre and a well-developed spreading ridge along the SW limb. Extensive lava flows emanating from the CVC covers early spreading-related fabric in the NE and NW limbs. The large shield volcano, which is 0.5 km high and occupies an area of at least 62.3 km², has a distinctive 2.5-km diameter summit caldera with extensive hydrothermal activity in the south. The CVC and surrounding lava flows are estimated to have grown in place at a rate of 3,000 m²/yr, thus dominating the recent history of the NFBTJ. By contrast, earlier crustal growth along the SW and NW spreading segments, prior to the emergence of CVC, is estimated to have been ~1,650 m²/yr and 200 m²/yr respectively. The quantitative analysis of rifting and the eruptive history highlight previously unrecognized near and far-field geodynamic influences on the triple junction formation. In particular, the pulse of crustal growth at the NFB beginning at 3 Ma was related to rift propagation from the south in response to rotation of the NFB that produced some of the fastest growing crust in the oceans. Comparisons with a global database of triple junctions show that the evolution of the NFBTJ shares many features with other microplate mosaics and that processes related to triple junction formation is associated with crustal growth wherever triple junctions occur. The high heat flow and voluminous mafic magmatism has been compared to rapid crustal growth in some ancient greenstone belts, such as the Archean Abitibi Greenstone Belt in the Superior Province of Canada. In particular, the NFBTJ is a possible modern analog of large central volcanic complexes that characterize ancient greenstone-belt development.

The first objective of this dissertation is to present hybrid numerical-analytical approaches and reduced-order models to simulate microelectromechanical systems (MEMS) in multi-physics fields. These include electric actuation (AC and DC), squeeze-film damping, thermoelastic damping, and structural forces. The second objective is to investigate MEMS phenomena, such as squeeze-film damping and dynamic pull-in, and use the latter to design a novel RF-MEMS switch. In the first part of the dissertation, we introduce a new approach to the modeling and simulation of flexible microstructures under the coupled effects of squeeze-film damping, electrostatic actuation, and mechanical forces. The new approach utilizes the compressible Reynolds equation coupled with the equation governing the plate deflection. The model accounts for the slip condition of the flow at very low pressures. Perturbation methods are used to derive an analytical expression for the pressure distribution in terms of the structural mode shapes. This expression is substituted into the plate equation, which is solved in turn using a finite-element method for the structural mode shapes, the pressure distributions, the natural frequencies, and the quality factors. We apply the new approach to a variety of rectangular and circular plates and present the final expressions for the pressure distributions and quality factors. We extend the approach to microplates actuated by large electrostatic forces. For this case, we present a low-order model, which reduces significantly the cost of simulation. The model utilizes the nonlinear Euler-Bernoulli beam equation, the von K´arm´an plate equations, and the compressible Reynolds equation. The second topic of the dissertation is thermoelastic damping. We present a model and analytical expressions for thermoelastic damping in microplates. We solve the heat equation for the thermal flux across the microplate, in terms of the structural mode shapes, and hence decouple the thermal equation from the plate equation. We utilize a perturbation method to derive an analytical expression for the quality factor of a microplate with general boundary conditions under electrostatic loading and residual stresses in terms of its structural mode shapes. We present results for microplates with various boundary conditions. In the final part of the dissertation, we present a dynamic analysis and simulation of MEMS resonators and novel RF MEMS switches employing resonant microbeams. We first study microbeams excited near their fundamental natural frequencies (primary-resonance excitation). We investigate the dynamic pull-in instability and formulate safety criteria for the design of MEMS sensors and RF filters. We also utilize this phenomenon to design a low-voltage RF MEMS switch actuated with a combined DC and AC loading. Then, we simulate the dynamics of microbeams excited near half their fundamental natural frequencies (superharmonic excitation) and twice their fundamental natural frequencies (subharmonic excitation). For the superharmonic case, we present results showing the effect of varying the DC bias, the damping, and the AC excitation amplitude on the frequency-response curves. For the subharmonic case, we show that if the magnitude of the AC forcing exceeds the threshold activating the subharmonic resonance, all frequency-response curves will reach pull-in. / Ph. D.