ABSTRACT The Rock Art of southern Africa represents the single most informative surviving artifact of the social and symbolic lives of many hunter-gatherers, herders, farmers and settlers who have lived and marked our land. Unlike many other forms of archaeology, rock art has always been in the public domain and of late has become a defining element of social identity. Farmer settlement engravings based on concentric circles joined by meandering lines are particularly intriguing images in southern African Iron Age rock art tradition. This study focuses on a large engraved Iron Age site on the farm Boomplaats 29 JT in Lydenburg District, Mpumalanga province, republic of South Africa. This site contains a variety of engravings ranging from concentric circles, animal motifs, drilled holes, spread-eagle designs and a Mhele/ Morabaraba game board. Although the general characteristics and overall distribution of this art are known, the issue of authorship of this art is till unknown. This research, therefore, goes deeper into both the historical and archaeological evidence from Mpumalanga province to investigate and ascertain the authors of these engravings. This study hopes to advance our knowledge of this art by focusing on the specific issue of authorship, and examining the relationship between the engravings and settlement ruins in the area.

Systematic conservation planning (SCP) relies fundamentally on spatial information about the distribution of biodiversity, and applying the principles of conserving a representative sample of biodiversity pattern that can persist over time, and the translation of conservation objectives into explicit quantitative targets. My thesis focuses on the development of appropriate data sets to include Mpumalanga Province’s indigenous forests (South Africa) within a regional SCP. My aim is to investigate and describe forest pattern and ecological processes at appropriate scales to inform a provincial SCP assessment. A large data set consisting of 506 plots of 20 m x 20 m sampled the indigenous forests in and around Mpumalanga to inform the identification of SCP forest features and conservation targets. The current National Forest Classification (NFC) identifies forest types at a national scale, inappropriate for a regional assessment. I identified a hierarchy of forest subtypes, nested within the NFC based on Flexible beta (β = –0.25) clustering and Bray-Curtis resemblance measure. This classification procedure is selected after a detailed evaluation of available methods to identify a robust numerical classification technique, optimising on statistically identified faithful species. Fourteen forest subtypes are distinguished within three national forest types. I propose that the Wakkerstroom Midlands Forest Subtype be embedded within the Northern Highveld Forest Type, and not the Low Escarpment Mistbelt Forest Type as is currently recognised in the NFC. The proposed forest subtypes are described in terms of dominant plant families and genera, growth forms, seasonality or leaf retention characteristics, and the proportion of forest dependant species. A total of 125 plant families, 375 genera and 619 species are identified to occur in the Mpumalanga forests, with the most abundant species per family being Rubiaceae (33 plant species), Fabaceae (26), Celastraceae (25), Orchidaceae (23), Euphorbiaceae (22), Aspleniaceae (21) and Apocynaceae (20). 76% of all forest plant species are obligate forest species and 80% of all tree cover is evergreen. The identification and understanding of underlying ecological processes is informed by the analysis of three scales of environmental variables and geographic space on forest composition using variation partitioning and ordination. I propose the application of semivariogram analysis to categorise environmental variables into three scales of influence (local, regional and supra-regional scales). The largest fraction of variation is explained by the regional variables (45%), followed by the effects of supra-regional (21%) and local variables (19%). Using the full floristic data, both the environmental and geographic variable matrices accounted for 55% of observed variation. Geographic space (23%) partially explains the important role of dispersal in influencing variation in species patterns across all forest strata, even in the herbaceous stratum where the substantial contribution of dispersal is unexpected. My analysis provides insight into the relative contributions of environmental variables and the scale of their influence, and highlights the importance of dispersal in explaining forest vegetation patterns in Mpumalanga. The use of ecological processes within SCP is still in its infancy, particularly in light of the threat of climate change. I propose a new method based on graph theory that incorporates dispersal distance to identify connectivity importance values for each forest patch based on their contribution towards landscape connectivity. Minimum patch distance is informed through a dispersal range ensuring 75% of flora can disperse between patches. The connectivity analysis supports resilience and persistence in SCP scenarios. Finally I needed to set quantitative targets for the pattern and process features for their inclusion within a SCP. With an overarching goal of ensuring that at least 75% of all species are represented by at least one individual within each forest subtype in a SCP, I utilised the Species Area Relationship (SAR) to determine the slope of the relationship and to estimate the proportion of area required to represent 75% of species. The number of plots in my data set was low for certain forest subtypes, which necessitated an approach of utilising highest values from estimators of species richness and integrating forest subtype targets with those for forest types of a higher level in the NFC. I integrate forest connectivity into pattern targets as a precautionary approach given the vulnerability of naturally disconnected forest patches and the importance of emigration and immigration of plant diaspores in maintaining forest composition across a network of small forest patches. The resulting forest pattern targets ranged between 24.9% and 49.7% for forest subtypes, with a mean value of 34.8%. I also propose forest process targets for more spatially fixed processes, such as the important forest patches supporting connectivity, as well as the spatially flexible buffers around each priority forest patch. Spatially fixed forest process targets are set at 100% and for spatially flexible forest processes the targets are set at 60% of original extent. Consideration also needs to be given to design criteria that can assist in developing a framework for prioritising conservation actions based on vulnerability and irreplaceability.

The Mpumalanga escarpment hosts a series of stonewalled settlements that occur along a narrow belt between Carolina and Ohrigstad. These sites are unique as they have networks of linking roads, vast areas of terracing as well as large cattle kraals which do not occur in combination or to such an extent anywhere else in southern Africa. Furthermore these settlements occur at an altitude unfavourable for living or agricultural purposes. With the use of Geographic Information Systems (GIS) layers of data relating to the Mpumalanga escarpment and the settlements within the area over the past five hundred years are viewed and compared in order to further understand the placement and structure of these settlements.

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in fulfilment of requirements for the degree of Master of Science. 31 October 2014, Johannesburg. / Over one-third of South Africa’s surface area is covered by savanna woodlands. The structure and dynamics of savannas within communal rangelands have not only been formed by environmental determinants (rainfall and soil) but have also been influenced and manipulated by anthropogenic disturbances (fire, herbivory by livestock, harvesting of resources and cultivation). The aim of this study was to determine the individual and interactive influences of rainfall and catenal position on woody vegetation composition and structure in human-impacted woodlands of Bushbuckridge, Mpumalanga Province, from 2011 to 2013. Three zones were selected that differed in mean annual rainfall: (a) wet west (>700mm), (b) mesic (600-700mm), and semi-dry east (<600m), with three villages per zone. For the rangeland of each village, plots were sampled in 2011, 2012 and 2013 to cover the upland and bottomland variations in catenal position. All trees >6m in height, and their individual stems, were counted and measured within a total of 56 circular plots (only 28 in 2011) each with a radius of 50m. Trees <6m, and their stems, were counted and measured in a circular plot with a radius of 6m, nested centrally within each 50m plot. All analyses were undertaken on (a) total trees and stems and (b) recently harvested (within the last 12 month) trees and stems. The density of small trees (<6m in height) was significantly higher than that of large trees (>6m in height) from 2011 to 2013. Trees and stems were more abundant in the smaller height and diameter classes, respectively, indicating stable populations. The densities of stems for large trees did not show any change over time, whereas the densities of small trees decreased from 2011 to 2013. When comparing across time between rainfall zones, the densities were higher in the high rainfall zone than in the low and medium rainfall zones for each survey year. On the other hand, densities were similar between uplands and bottomlands for each survey year. The intensity of harvesting increased for large trees over time (between 0% in 2011, 2.3% in 2012 and 10.6% in 2013), whereas small trees did not show any change over time. The most harvested trees were between 0.6-4m in height and 1.1-10cm in stem diameter. There were however some signs that harvesting in the larger size classes (>6m in height and >20cm diameter) were increasing over time. The highest proportion of trees was harvested in the medium rainfall zone compared to the other two rainfall zones, but there was similar harvesting intensity between uplands and bottomlands. Overall species richness, Shannon and Simpson’s (Diversity), and Evenness at the plot level did not change for either large or small trees from 2011 to 2013. The species richness and Shannon’s diversity was higher in the high rainfall zone than in the other two rainfall zones, whereas there was no difference in species richness, diversity or evenness between catenal positions for either large or small trees over time. Because there are similar patterns between the species accumulation and rarefaction curves for both the large and small trees, species are distributed at random across the plots, and this is consistent for the three survey years. The most abundance large tree species were Sclerocarya birrea > Philenoptera violacea > Pterocarpus angolensis, which were very different from the most abundant small tree species that were dominated by Dichrostachys cinerea, Terminalia sericea, Acacia exuvialis, Strychnos madagascariensis and Combretum hereroense. A greater species richness, diversity and evenness of harvested trees were observed in 2013 compared to 2011 and 2012. Species that were most harvested for large trees comprised Combretum collinum, Acacia gerrardii, T. sericea, Acacia robusta, Combretum zeyheri and S. birrea, whereas harvested small trees comprised D. cinerea, T. sericea, A. exuvialis and C. hereroense. Even though there were no differences in density, structure, species richness, diversity or harvesting intensity, the species composition did however differ between the uplands and bottomlands. The bottomlands had more abundant fine-leaved species (e.g. Acacia spp. and Dichrostachys cinerea) and the uplands had more abundant broad-leaved species (particularly Combretum spp.). There was a greater difference in species composition in the high rainfall zone relative to the low and medium rainfall zones. This difference in species composition was consistent with the findings that the high rainfall zone had higher density, and a taller, single stemmed tree structure, as well as species richness and diversity when compared to the low and medium rainfall zones. Harvesting intensity was higher in the bottomlands than in the uplands and also higher in the low and medium rainfall zones than in the high rainfall zone. Recent harvesting appeared to have had less influence on species composition than catenal position or rainfall zone. The harvesting of these resources has an impact on both human livelihoods and the ecosystem and must therefore occur in a sustainable way. When the rate of wood production is less than or equal to the rate of wood harvesting, harvesting can be defined as sustainable. The rate of fuelwood harvesting is driven by the demand for the resource, which in most cases is driven by local human population size. With the increase in human population size over time, and the scarcity of fuelwood from the surrounding rangelands, the existence of fuelwood markets is fast becoming a part of daily life as it ensures fuelwood for daily usage such as cooking. For this reason, long-term monitoring is needed. Long-term monitoring will not only allow for better future management of natural resources, but it also allows for the communities to get involved in protecting the resources which are so vital to a vast number of people for daily living. Future studies analysing the data from these plots over longer time periods will provide a better understanding of the role that environmental and anthropogenic determinants play in the changes observed over time in the woody vegeta

FEBRUARY, 2016 A research report submitted to the Faculty of Engineering and the Built Environment, University of the Witwatersrand, Johannesburg, in partial fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Development Planning. / Since the dawn of democracy in South Africa, significant strides have been made in (ensuring equal access to) education. With that Section 29 of the highest law in the land – the Constitution of the Republic of South Africa (Act 108 of 1996) – has made provision for the realisation of a basic education for all citizens. Moreover, significant portions of the national budget have since been set aside annually in ensuring the realisation of this right. Yet, the quality of education remains unequal across municipal space(s), even against the backdrop of the amalgamation of previously disadvantaged spaces (such as Luphisi) with affluent areas (such as Mbombela/Nelspruit). This has resulted in the persistence of ‘two worlds of education’ within municipalities as in the case of Mbombela Local Municipality. A world of well-resourced schools and exceptional matric pass rates flourish in Nelspruit/Mbombela, while a world of impoverishment and low academic performance rates is experienced in Luphisi. This research refers to this predicament as ‘structural inequalities between Model C and Rural Schools’ resulting in spatial educational inequalities. The research explores the problems re structural inequalities between Model C and Rural Schools, using the case of Sdungeni Secondary School in Mbombela Local Municipality’s Luphisi village to uncover these hindrances. The report departed by focusing on birth location and the socioeconomic background of learners and how this has a great influence in the kind of education a learner is likely to receive. Using the qualitative method of enquiry, which is a multi-layered type of research technique that crosscuts disciplines, fields, and subjects, the study arrived at presenting a cohort and demonstration of multiple truths rather than ‘a single truth’. The research brought to light that whilst the government has made concerted efforts at ensuring the equal structures of education in different municipal spaces, these efforts are still hampered by class (as a residue of apartheid) as well as government’s adoption of neoliberalist policies which further perpetuate the rich-poor divide. It was also noted that the confusion regarding the governance of schools – due in large part to traditional and/or structural issues – may be hindering the upgrading of rural schools with amenities and higher grades. Consequently, schools – by virtue of their location, morphology, still play a significant role in reproducing and perpetuating social class divisions as well as ordering different societies according to their ‘latently prescribed’ nature(s) of function

A dissertation submitted to the Faculty of Science, University of Witwatersrand, in fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Masters of Science Johannesburg, 2012. / Amplified loads of sulfate and nitrate have caused increased stress on soil systems in many areas of the world, as both are dominant components of acid rain. This is a critical environmental stress due to the damage caused to soil, water quality and ecosystem functioning. Issues concerning the rising emissions of these elements from local industries have begun to attract increasing attention in South Africa, as the rates of deposition in the Mpumalanga Highveld region alone is comparable to those experienced in First World countries. This study sought to investigate the use of natural stable isotopes of sulfur and nitrogen to identify the process transformations that these species undergo in environmental cycles. Total δ34S, δ15N and δ13C isotope signature of soils in the Mpumalanga region were combined with total elemental concentrations to determine the effect of deposition on the soil system. Soil samples from two soil depths (0 – 10 cm and 20 – 40 cm) were taken along a distance gradient from an identified pollution source, the Majuba power station. Long-term air quality data from the study area were also obtained from Eskom’s air quality monitoring stations, as well as sulfur and nitrogen deposition data from selected literature. Elemental concentrations decreased with soil depth as expected, while sites located approximately 25 km downwind of the power station were seen to contain higher concentrations of both soil sulfur and nitrogen. The mean per site soil sulfur concentration across all depths ranged from 0.009 % to 0.048 %, while the mean per site nitrogen concentration across all depths ranged from 0.056 % to 0.346 %. The mean soil carbon concentration in the top-soils ranged from 0.97 % to 7.93 %, and decreased in the sub-soils to 0.490 % to 3.270 %.The mean δ34S value for the top-soils was found to be 8.28 ‰ and increased to 10.78 ‰ in the sub-soils. Soil δ15N also increased with soil depth from 6.55 ‰ to 8.28 ‰. Soil δ13C values were seen to increase from -12.83 ‰ in the top-soils to -11.90 ‰ in the sub-soils. Lighter δ34S values at the surface may be due to anthropogenic deposition. The positive δ34S shift was attributed to a two-source mixing model (atmospheric deposition and bedrock) and isotopic fractionation processes that occur within the soil profile. The δ15N values of the top-soil were higher than what is expected if all nitrogen was derived from atmospheric nitrogen gas fixation. The increase in δ15N with depth suggested that isotope fractionation occurred during nitrogen export due to the faster reaction rate of 14N compared to 15N. The soil δ13C values indicated a typical C4 grassland system. New carbon at the top-soil depths was enriched in 13C due to the slower decay of 13C-depleted lignin; whereas in the sub-soils microbial recycling of carbon dominates and explained the higher 13C content of the older carbon. The conceptual framework presented for this project involves simultaneous processes of deposition and export in the soil system. This was particularly true for sulfur, where sites with lower isotope values had lower soil sulfur concentrations and vice versa. This indicates that high levels of deposition correspond to high net export. The sulfur and nitrogen isotopic signatures could not be used to as a direct means of source identification; however, the effectiveness of isotopes in elucidating transfer of these nutrients in the soil system was illustrated.

This study investigated the effects of incorporating English language teaching in Physical Sciences education. The sample was selected from Physical Sciences Grade 10 learners in a school in Mpumalanga Province and comprised an experimental group who were taught through a workbook that incorporated language teaching in science lessons and a control group who were taught via the normal textbook prescribed by the Department of Basic Education. Pre- and post-tests were administered to both groups and a sample of learners participated in a focus group interview. Two educators were also individually interviewed. The results revealed that incorporating language teaching in science lessons not only improves learners’ academic performance but also their comprehension skills, and encouraged the application of learner-centred methods of teaching. The study recommends that Physical Sciences textbooks include English language activities with the view of incorporating language teaching in Physical Sciences content lessons. / Science and Technology Education / M. Ed. (Natural Science Education)

Thesis (M.Dev.) -- University of Limpopo, 2011 / The legacy of apartheid has left the Democratic South African government with many challenges. Sixteen years of governance have not been enough for the state to close the gap between the rich and the poor. Instead, the gap is widening day by day. The Black Economic Empowerment (BEE), the Broad Based Black Economic Empowerment (BBBEE) and other government intervention strategies have not done enough to uplift the standard of living of the majority of people in the country. The poor, living in rural areas, remain the most hard-hit and recipients of the bitter fruits of the past. Little or no development has been taking place in their communities. Regardless of the many efforts by the current government, water supply and sanitation in rural areas are a nightmare. The study was conducted in two rural villages in Bushbuckridge Local Municipality (BLM), namely, Clare B and Islington. In some parts of the villages residents have never fetched water in their streets less than one kilometre for close to a year. The results show that villagers are negatively affected by the lack of water in their communities. The economic power of these communities is very low, most of them are living below the poverty line. The results suggest, as elsewhere, that the BLM should install water pipes that will transfer water from the Injaka Dam to all rural areas in the municipality, as the two villages under study are not the only ones experiencing water shortages in the area.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Zoology)) --University of Limpopo, 2009 / The aim of this study was to determine the breeding habitat of Blue Crane (Anthropoides paradiseus) by investigating the home range, habitat selection and habitat suitability. Geographic Information System (GIS) was used as the main tool for analysis. Home range sizes of Blue Cranes were studied during the breeding season using direct observation method. A 50% and 95% Adaptive Kernel was used to estimate home range sizes. The home range sizes were 9.0 ha and 43.5 ha for 50% and 95% Adaptive Kernel, respectively. All the nests were located within 50% Adaptive Kernel, often referred to as core area. The nests were located in agricultural land (mainly pasture) and close to water sources. Habitat selection was studied at nest sites (n = 74) and random sites (n = 200) following site attribute design. The Blue Crane showed a preference to breed in agricultural lands, close proximity to water sources, higher elevation areas, within north eastern sandy highveld vegetation, and north facing slope. The Blue Crane also avoided anthropogenic factors such as built-up land, roads and railway line. ModelBuilder extension of ArcGIS software was used to construct a breeding habitat suitability model for Blue Cranes. Nine habitat variables (water source, slope, aspect, elevation, land use, vegetation, built-up land, roads and railway line) were used in the model. The model was constructed using reclassify and weighted overlay command. Highly suitable sites accounted for 601, 448 ha, while moderately suitable sites accounted for 823, 593 ha, and least suitable sites accounted for 3, 000, 153 ha. This study demonstrated the effective use of GIS technology in analysing the breeding ecology of Blue Crane. The GIS technology provided capabilities for capturing and analysing varied and large data. It was also evident that availability of accurate and complete species data remains vital to enable the full utilization of the GIS technology.

Thesis (M.Sc. (Curations)) --University of Limpopo, 2015 / The purpose of the study was to determine the experiences of professional nurses with ethical dilemmas at the Witbank hospital Nkangala district Mpumalanga province. The objectives of the study were to describe the experiences of professional nurses with ethical dilemmas in nursing practice and to determine supportive measures to help professional nurses to deal with ethical dilemmas encountered in nursing practice. The research question was: what are the ethical dilemmas that professional nurses experience in nursing practice? Kohlberg theory of moral development was used as a theoretical framework. A qualitative exploratory, descriptive and contextual research design was used to describe the experiences of professional nurses with ethical dilemmas in nursing practice. Purposive sampling was used to sample fourteen (14) professional nurses. Data was collected using semi-structured interviews. Open-coding method of data analysis was used and four themes and sub-themes emerged. The study found that professional nurses experience ethical dilemmas related to death and dying, distribution of both human and material resources, respect of patients’ autonomy and the nurses’ rights. The study recommends continuous ethics education and the inclusion of ethics in nursing curricula, creation of a supportive working environment, knowledge and understanding of the pledge of service, Inter- disciplinary teams to discuss ethical issues, availability of ethics experts and ethics mentors in the wards.