A nistatina (NYS) é o fármaco de primeira escolha no tratamento da candidíase oral, que frequentemente acomete mais os indivíduos imunocomprometidos e pacientes com outras desordens (diabetes não tratada, neoplasias, imunodeficiências). No mercado brasileiro, a NYS é encontrada na forma de suspensão oral aquosa, onde o procedimento para sua administração consiste em bochechar o medicamento. Apesar de haver a indicação de que se mantenha o contato direto entre fármaco e a mucosa oral, na qual se encontra a Candida spp., o que aumentaria expressivamente o sucesso terapêutico, a suspensão não apresenta tal propriedade. Assim, a NYS que é fármaco com ação efetiva contra a candidíase oral, é considerada pertencente à Classe IV do Sistema de Classificação Biofarmacêutica, ou seja, apresenta baixa solubilidade e baixa permeabilidade. A baixa solubilidade pode comprometer sua disponibilidade na cavidade oral, e consequentemente, sua ação farmacológica. Diante desse quadro, o objetivo do presente trabalho foi o desenvolvimento de dispersões sólidas de NYS para o tratamento da candidíase oral, e sua posterior incorporação em gel mucoadesivo oral, favorecendo a formulação no local de ação. As dispersões sólidas são sistemas farmacêuticos, onde um fármaco pouco solúvel em água encontra-se dispersado em um carreador, no estado sólido. Os carreadores normalmente são hidrofílicos, o que permite que esses sistemas sejam empregados para aumentar a solubilidade aquosa do fármaco. Assim, foram desenvolvidas as dispersões sólidas de NYS, pelo método de eliminação do solvente, empregando como carreadores, lactose, HPMC, poloxamer 407 e poloxamer 188. Essas foram submetidas à caracterização por análise térmica, usando os ensaios de calorimetria exploratória diferencial (DSC) e termogravimetria/termogravimetria derivada (TG/DTG). Dentre essas dispersões sólidas, aquelas que se mostraram com comportamento térmico sugerindo a formação de um novo \"sistema\", foram analisadas por meio de ensaio de solubilidade. Dessa forma, a formulação NYS DS G2 (49) se destacou, pois apresentou maior solubilidade em água (4,484 mg/mL); em pH 5,5 (4,249 mg/mL) e em pH 7,0 (4,293 mg/mL), ou seja, houve um aumento de 1,426 vezes em água; 4,227 vezes em pH 5,5; e 2,743 vezes em pH 7,0. Essa formulação foi, por fim avaliada por difração de raio-X e espectroscopia de infravermelho com transformada de Fourier, técnicas que corroboraram com a análise térmica quanto à indicação de formação da dispersão sólida. Por sua vez, essa dispersão sólida foi incorporada em 4 bases de géis mucoadesivos de carbopol ® 934 PNF, alterando apenas a concentração do polímero (0,5; 1,0; 1,5; 2,0 %p/p). Foi observado que a liberação de NYS DS G2 (49) foi superior, quando comparada à liberação de NYS MP a partir do gel, e através do ensaio de mucoadesão, percebeu-se que os géis desenvolvidos apresentaram propriedades mucoadesivas compatíveis com relatos na literatura, independentemente da quantidade de carbopol ® empregada. As características reológicas foram distintas, e foi observado que as formulações Gel A e Gel B, que possuem menor quantidade de polímero, tiverem um indicativo de comportamento de fluido newtoniano, diferente dos demais, o que pode não ser desejado para esse tipo de forma farmacêutica tópica e semi-sólida. Ao final desse trabalho, pode-se concluir que foi possível desenvolver um sistema farmacêutico na forma de dispersão sólida com maior solubilidade que a NYS pura, e sua incorporação em uma forma farmacêutica mucoadesiva, e que a liberação da NYS na forma DS foi muito superior que o fármaco na forma \"convencional\", o que permite que a NYS esteja mais disponível na cavidade oral, e também junto à mucosa bucal, o que levaria a efeito farmacológico mais efetivo do antifúngico. / Nystatin (NYS) is the drug of first choice in the treatment of oral candidiasis that most often affect immunocompromised individuals, and patients with other disorders. In the Brazilian market, NYS is found in the form of aqueous oral suspension, a medication used in the form of mouthwash. Although there is an indication to maintain direct contact between the drug and the oral mucosa, where Candida spp. is found, as well as where therapeutic success would significantly be increased, the suspension has no such property. Thus, the NYS is an effective drug against oral candidiasis, and belongs to Class IV of the Biopharmaceutical Classification System, it has low solubility and low permeability. The low solubility can compromise its availability in the oral cavity, and consequently, its pharmacological action. Given this situation, the objective of this work was the development of solid dispersions of NYS for the treatment of oral candidiasis, and its subsequent incorporation into oral mucoadhesive gel, in order to facilitate its action. Solid dispersions are pharmaceutical systems, in which a solid drug poorly soluble in water is dispersed in a carrier. These carriers are usually hydrophilic, and this allows the systems to be employed in order to increase the aqueous solubility of the drug. Thus, the solid NYS dispersions were developed by the solvent evaporation method, employing lactose, HPMC, poloxamer 407 and poloxamer 188 as carrier. These samples were subjected to characterization by thermal analysis, using differential scanning calorimetry (DSC) and thermogravimetry / derivative thermogravimetry (TG / DTG). Among these solid dispersions, those samples which showed a specific thermal behavior suggesting the formation of new \"system\" were analyzed by solubility test. Thus, the NYS DS G2 formulation (49) stood out, once it showed greater solubility in water (4.484 mg/mL); at pH 5.5 (4.249 mg/mL) and pH 7.0 (4.293 mg/mL), in other words, an increase of 1,426 times in water; 4,227 times at pH 5.5; and 2,743 times at pH 7.0. This formulation was finally evaluated by X-ray diffraction, infrared spectroscopy with Fourier transform, techniques that corroborate the thermal analysis, indicating the formation of the solid dispersion. On the other hand, this solid dispersion was incorporated into 4 Carbopol ® 934 PNF mucoadhesive gels, with a variation of the polymer concentration. It was observed that NYS is improved of delivery from the gels, employing mucoadhesion test, and was also observed that the gels have mucoadhesive properties consistent with reports in the literature. However, the rheological characteristics are different, and it was observed that the Gel A and Gel B formulations, which has a lower amount of polymer behaved as a Newtonian fluid, which may not be desired for this type of topical gel. As conclusion, it was possible to develop a pharmaceutical system in the form of solid dispersion with greater solubility than the pure NYS, and their incorporation in a mucoadhesive dosage form and the release of NYS as DS was far superior wherein the drug in the \"conventional\" manner, which allows the NYS is longer available in the oral cavity, and also adjacent to the buccal mucosa, leading to more effective pharmacological effect of the antifungal agent.

Degradation of peroral administered drugs by various enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract has proven to be troublesome for the absorption' and bioavailability of protein and peptide drugs. Mucoadhesive polymers such as poly(acrylates) have proven to inhibit protease enzymes responsible for initiating digestion of peptide drugs. Enzyme inhibitors have unique chemical properties enabling it to interact with enzymes to form complexes with such enzymes prohibiting it from functioning properly. Anionic carboxymethylated chitosan derivatives such as N,N-dicarboxymethyl chitosan and N, O-carboxymethyl chitosan display unique structural similarities to enzyme inhibitors being anionic polymers that may interact with bi-valent cations... / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharm.))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Degradation of peroral administered drugs by various enzymes in the gastrointestinal tract has proven to be troublesome for the absorption' and bioavailability of protein and peptide drugs. Mucoadhesive polymers such as poly(acrylates) have proven to inhibit protease enzymes responsible for initiating digestion of peptide drugs. Enzyme inhibitors have unique chemical properties enabling it to interact with enzymes to form complexes with such enzymes prohibiting it from functioning properly. Anionic carboxymethylated chitosan derivatives such as N,N-dicarboxymethyl chitosan and N, O-carboxymethyl chitosan display unique structural similarities to enzyme inhibitors being anionic polymers that may interact with bi-valent cations... / Thesis (M.Sc. (Pharm.))--North-West University, Potchefstroom Campus, 2004.

Controlled release of drugs to the lungs is an interesting and evolving field of research. The influence of physicochemical properties of nanoparticles on the controlled release of ciprofloxacin and in-vivo pharmacokinetics following pulmonary administration was evaluated. The physicochemical properties had an effect on encapsulation efficiency and surface charge, but no significant effect on particle size. The in-vitro release profiles of ciprofloxacin in phosphate buffered saline showed small differences over the range of physicochemical properties evaluated. The physicochemical properties of ciprofloxacin nanoparticles resulted in variable and unreliable nebulizer output using a vibrating mesh nebulizer whereas the impact on the aerosol properties of a jet nebulizer was negligible. Addition of mucoadhesive polymers in the nanoparticles had a three-fold increase in apparent half-life in rats by releasing ciprofloxacin over an extended release period on the surfaces of the lungs.

ABSTRACT Effective drug delivery to ocular tissues is an unmet challenge that has significant potential to improve the treatment of ocular diseases. Whether the intended drug delivery target is the anterior or posterior segment, the eye’s efficient natural protection mechanisms prevent effective and sustained drug delivery. Anatomical and physiological barriers including the rapid tear turnover that effectively washes away topically applied drugs, the impermeable characteristics of the cornea, conjunctiva, and sclera, and the tight junctions in the blood-ocular barriers make conventional drug delivery methods ineffective. New materials that are able to overcome these barriers are essential to improving the sustained delivery of ophthalmic therapeutics to the intended targets within the eye. This thesis will explore two polymeric drug delivery systems that have the potential to improve therapeutic delivery to ocular tissues. Chapter 1 will discuss the anatomical and physiological barriers to ophthalmic drug delivery and overview current research in this area. Chapter 2 will discuss the synthesis of N-isopropylacrylamide-based copolymers with adjustable gelation temperatures based on composition and molecular weight. Chapter 3 will discuss further development of these copolymers into an injectable, thermoresponsive, and resorbable polymeric drug delivery system intended for the treatment of diseases in the posterior segment. Chapter 4 will discuss the development of mucoadhesive polymeric micelle nanoparticles based on phenylboronic acid intended for topical administration of ophthalmic therapeutics. Finally, Chapter 5 will provide an overview of potential future work on these materials that could further develop and broaden their therapeutic use. / Thesis / Master of Science in Biomedical Engineering

L’une des principales problématiques du développement de produits biologiques, comme les probiotiques, réside dans l’impact du processus de fabrication sur la souche d’intérêt. Le maintien de l’activité thérapeutique est d’un intérêt capital pour obtenir l’effet bénéfique et, des travaux ont également optimisé les propriétés de la souche Lcr35® au travers du procédé de fabrication. Ainsi, toutes les étapes de fabrication du produit sont autant d’étapes qui peuvent modifier les caractéristiques de la souche bactérienne. La compression a été reconnue comme étant une étape qui permet d’éliminer les contaminations bactériennes et a également été décrite comme néfaste pour la viabilité d’une souche probiotique. Ces données constituent donc un a priori négatif au développement de probiotiques comprimés.Inversement, cette forme galénique est reconnue pour améliorer la demi-Vie des produits et améliorer la stabilité des bactéries dans un milieu gastrique. Cependant, aucune étude complète des propriétés d’une souche probiotique, après compression, n’a été effectuée. Or, afin d’établir un dossier d’AMM, toutes ces propriétés se doivent d’être vérifiées sur le produit final.Les travaux présentés se sont donc attachés à étudier les principales propriétés de la souche Lcr35® après compression. Tout d’abord, la perte de viabilité initiale en fonction de la pression de compression a été évaluée expérimentalement et une loi de décroissance d’ordre 1 est proposée. Un tel modèle permet ainsi d’anticiper la perte de viabilité selon la formulation et les conditions de compression. D’autre part, le profil génétique ainsi que le profil d’expression des gènes de la souche Lcr35® ont été étudiés après compression. Ni l’un ni l’autre n’a été modifié par le stress mécanique généré par la compression. De même, les propriétés d’inhibition du pathogène vaginal C. albicans ainsi que la résistance à pH acide de la souche sont maintenues. La résistance au pH gastrique est même améliorée par une protection mécanique vis-À-Vis du milieu.Selon les données de stabilité (ICH Q1A), la viabilité de la souche Lcr35® n’est pas non plus affectée par la compression. Les données de stabilité ont fait l’objet d’une modélisation par l’équation d’Arrhenius permettant d’obtenir un modèle fiable de prédiction de la stabilité, à partir des données en conditions accélérées (40°C).Dans une approche QbD de développement des produits pharmaceutiques, ces données serviront de base de comparaison pour la caractérisation de formulations en développement où des éléments tels que le milieu de culture, la souche ou la forme galénique peuvent être modifiés.Cette caractérisation globale de la souche Lcr35®, après compression, a permis d’infirmer l’a priori négatif sur la compression des bactéries. Ces travaux ont permis de comprendre, de caractériser et de modéliser les aspects liés à la compression des probiotiques. Ils constituent un prérequis primordial au développement d’un nouveau produit sous la forme d’un comprimé. Suite à une étape de développement complémentaire, ils ont d’ailleurs permis d’aboutir au premier produit commercialisé sous la forme d’un comprimé à libération prolongée, par la société Probionov : Gynophilus® LP.Ces données sur la compression élargissent la connaissance fondamentale de l’effet des procédés pharmaceutiques sur les propriétés des probiotiques et ouvrent de manière considérable leur champ de développement. Cette forme est un atout considérable en termes de stabilité mais surtout, elle fait intervenir de nombreuses perspectives de développement : gastro-Résistants, effervescents, multicouches, etc. Par l’intermédiaire de cette technologie, une administration plus ciblée de la souche par exemple dans les parties distales de l’intestin pourra être envisagée pour optimiser le bénéfice thérapeutique des souches probiotiques. Le but final étant de pouvoir diminuer la posologie des traitements tout en améliorant l’observance et le confort des patients. / One of the main issues in the development of biological products, such as probiotics, is the impact of the manufacturing process on the strain of interest. Maintaining therapeutic activity is of great interest for the expected beneficial effect and work has even optimized the properties of the Lcr35® strain through the manufacturing process. Therefore, all process stages leading to the final product are steps that can alter the characteristics of the bacterial strain.Compression is recognized in some publications as being a step which eliminates bacterial contaminations present for example in the excipients. For the development of new probiotic products, compression has also been described as negative for bacterial viability. These data are therefore a negative a priori on development of probiotic products in the tablet form. Conversely, this dosage form is known to improve the half-Life of products and improve the stability of bacteria in gastric environment. However, no comprehensive study of the properties of a probiotic strain after compression was done. Nevertheless, to establish a marketing authorization, all the properties of the strain must be checked on the final product.This work has proposed a review of the main properties of the Lcr35® strain after compression. First of all, the initial loss of viability as a function of compression pressure was studied experimentally and was modeled by a first order law. It allows us to anticipate the loss of viability of a strain depending on the formulation and compression conditions. Furthermore, the genetic profile and the profile of gene expression have not been changed due to the compression step. We also noticed that the inhibition properties of the pathogen C. albicans growth and acid resistance of the strain are maintained. Resistance to gastric pH is also enhanced by a phenomenon of mechanical protection against the environment.According to the data of stability under ICH conditions, the viability of the compressed Lcr35® strain is not affected by the compression. Stability data have therefore been modeled by the Arrhenius equation to obtain a reliable model for predicting the stability data from accelerated conditions (40°C). In a QbD approach to pharmaceutical development, these data serve as a basis of comparison for the characterization of developing formulations where parameters such as the culture environment, the drying method, the strain or the galenic form can be changed. This global characterization of Lcr35® strain after compression has set aside the negative a priori against the compression of bacteria. This work helped to understand, characterize and model aspects linked to probiotics compression. They are an essential prerequisite for the development of a new probiotic product in the form of a tablet. Following a further development step, they also helped to lead to the first product in the tablet form, marketed by the company Probionov : Gynophilus® LP (vaginal administration). These compression data considerably broaden the field of development of probiotics. Indeed, this form is a considerable advantage in terms of stability but more importantly, the tablet form involves many development opportunities: gastro-Resistant, effervescent, multi-Layered tablets, etc. Through this technology, a more targeted administration of the strain such as up to the colon may be considered to maximize the therapeutic benefit of the probiotic strains. The ultimate goal is to be able to decrease the dosage of treatment while improving observance of the treatment and the patient comfort.

Cette étude décrit le développement de systèmes nanostructurés muco-adhésives, qui comprennent les nanoparticules décorées avec du chitosane et les films contenant des nanoparticules, visant la libération buccale de la curcumine. Deux différents systèmes de nanoparticules ont été développés: les nanoparticules de polycaprolactone (PCL) et les nanoparticules xyloglucane-bloc-polycaprolactone (XGO-b-PCL). Les nanoparticules de PCL ont été préparées par la technique de nanoprécipitation, alors que les nanoparticules XGO-b-PCL ont été préparées par la méthode du co-solvant. Les deux systèmes colloïdaux ont montré une forme sphérique et distribution monodisperse de particules. La décoration des nanoparticules avec du chitosane a été confirmée en mesurant la taille des particules et le potentiel zêta. Les études de la diffusion dynamique de la lumière (DLS) montrent un rayon hydrodynamique autour de 100 nm pour les nanoparticules de PCL et 50 nm pour les nanoparticules de XGO-b-PCL. Les suspensions de nanoparticules chargées en curcumine présentent des valeurs d'efficacité d'encapsulation proche de 100 %, et un taux moyen de principe actif autour de 450 μg/mL et 180 μg/mL pour les nanoparticules de PCL et XGO-b-PCL, respectivement. Les systèmes de nanoparticules ont aussi été caractérisées par la technique d'analyse du suivi des nanoparticules (NTA) et microscopie électronique à transmission (MET). Les propriétés mucoadhésives des nanoparticules ont été évaluées en mesurant les interactions de ces systèmes avec la glycoprotéine mucine (mucine sous-maxillaire bovine, BSM) par diffusion dynamique de la lumière (DLS), microbalance à cristal de quartz avec la mesure de dissipation d'énergie (QCM-D) et résonance plasmonique de surface (SPR). Toutes les nanoparticules décorées avec du chitosane ont démontré une excellente capacité d'interaction avec la mucine via de forces électrostatiques formées entre les groupes amines du polysaccharide et les groupes chargés négativement de la glycoprotéine, indiquant leur potentiel comme vecteurs mucoadhésives de médicaments. Les nanoparticules PCL ont aussi été caractérisées en termes de perméabilité et de rétention de curcumine à travers la muqueuse oesophagienne de porc. La rétention de concentrations de curcumine dans la muqueuse indique la possibilité d'obtention des effets locaux sur la surface muqueuse. Les études in vitro ont montré que les nanoparticules de PCL et XGO-b-PCL contenant la curcumine ont présenté une activité cytotoxique plus petite par rapport à la curcumine libre. Les nanoparticules de PCL contenant de la curcumine ont aussi démontré une activité antimicrobienne contre Candida albicans, ce qui suggère leur potentiel utilisation dans le traitement des infections fungiques. Les films mucoadhésifs contenant des nanoparticules ont été préparés par la technique de « casting », après l'incorporation des nanoparticules de PCL dans les solutions de chitosane plastifié. Les films obtenus en utilisant du chitosane de moyenne et haute masse molaire sont homogènes et flexibles. Les nanoparticules de PCL chargées de curcumine étaient uniformément distribuées sur les surfaces des films, comme le montrent les images de microscopie à force atomique (AFM) et de microscopie électronique à balayage de haute résolution (MEB-FEG). L'analyse par MEB-FEG des sections transversales des films a démontré la présence de nanoparticules à l'intérieur des films. En plus, les films ont montré un taux important d'hydratation en milieu salivaire et une libération contrôlée-prolongée de la curcumine. Par conséquent, les résultats obtenus indiquent que les systèmes mucoadhésives développés, nanoparticules décorées avec du chitosane et films contenant des nanoparticules, offrent une nouvelle stratégie pour la libération buccale de la curcumine, et sont potentiellement intéressant dans des applications de traitement locaux des maladies de la cavité orale. / This study describes the development of mucoadhesive nanostructured systems, including chitosan-coated nanoparticles and films containing nanoparticles, aiming the buccal delivery of curcumin. Two different systems of nanoparticles were developed: polycaprolactone (PCL) nanoparticles and xyloglucan-block-polycaprolactone (XGO-b-PCL) nanoparticles. PCL nanoparticles were prepared by the nanoprecipitation technique, while XGO-b-PCL nanoparticles were prepared by the co-solvent method. Both colloidal systems displayed spherical shape and monodisperse distribution of particles. The decoration of nanoparticles with chitosan was confirmed by particle size and zeta potential measurements. Dynamic light scattering (DLS) studies shown hydrodynamic radius around of 100 nm for PCL nanoparticles, and 50 nm for XGO-b-PCL nanoparticles. Curcumin-loaded nanoparticle suspensions exhibited encapsulation efficiency values close to 100 %, and a mean drug content about of 450 μg/mL and 180 μg/mL for PCL and XGO-b-PCL nanoparticles, respectively. Nanoparticle systems were also characterized by nanoparticle tracking analysis (NTA) and transmission electron microscopy (TEM). The mucoadhesive properties of nanoparticles were evaluated by monitoring the interactions of these systems with glycoprotein mucin (bovine submaxillary mucin, BSM) by dynamic light scattering (DLS), quartz crystal microbalance with dissipation monitoring (QCM-D) and surface plasmon resonance (SPR). All chitosan-coated nanoparticles demonstrate excellent ability to interact with mucin though electrostatic forces formed between amino groups of polysaccharide and negatively charged groups of glycoprotein, indicating their potential as mucoadhesive drug carriers. PCL nanoparticles were also characterized in terms of curcumin permeability and retention across the porcine esophageal mucosa. Amount of curcumin retained in the mucosa highlights the possibility of application for obtaining local effects on the mucosal surface. In vitro studies demonstrated that curcumin into copolymer nanoparticles showed reduced cytotoxicity when compared to free drug. Curcumin-loaded PCL nanoparticles also exhibited antimicrobial activity against Candida albicans strains, suggesting their potential use in the treatment of fungal infections. Mucoadhesive films containing nanoparticles were prepared using the casting technique, after the incorporation of PCL nanoparticles in plasticized chitosan solutions. Films obtained using medium and high molar mass chitosan showed to be homogeneous and flexible. Curcumin-loaded PCL nanoparticles were uniformly distributed on the films surface, as evidenced by atomic force microscopy (AFM) and high-resolution scanning electron microscopy (FEG-SEM) images. Analyses of films cross sections by FEG-SEM demonstrate the presence of nanoparticles inside the films. In addition, films showed good rate of hydration in saliva medium, and in vitro prolonged-controlled delivery of curcumin. Therefore, the results obtained indicate that the developed mucoadhesive systems, chitosan-coated nanoparticles and films containing nanoparticles, offer a novel strategy to buccal curcumin delivery and have potential applications in the local treatment of oral cavity disease.

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