abstract: III-V multijunction solar cells have demonstrated record efficiencies with the best device currently at 46 % under concentration. Dilute nitride materials such as GaInNAsSb have been identified as a prime choice for the development of high efficiency, monolithic and lattice-matched multijunction solar cells as they can be lattice-matched to both GaAs and Ge substrates. These types of cells have demonstrated efficiencies of 44% for terrestrial concentrators, and with their upright configuration, they are a direct drop-in product for today’s space and concentrator solar panels. The work presented in this dissertation has focused on the development of relatively novel dilute nitride antimonide (GaNAsSb) materials and solar cells using plasma-assisted molecular beam epitaxy, along with the modeling and characterization of single- and multijunction solar cells. Nitrogen-free ternary compounds such as GaInAs and GaAsSb were investigated first in order to understand their structural and optical properties prior to introducing nitrogen. The formation of extended defects and the resulting strain relaxation in these lattice-mismatched materials is investigated through extensive structural characterization. Temperature- and power-dependent photoluminescence revealed an inhomogeneous distribution of Sb in GaAsSb films, leading to carrier localization effects at low temperatures. Tuning of the growth parameters was shown to suppress these Sb-induced localized states. The introduction of nitrogen was then considered and the growth process was optimized to obtain high quality GaNAsSb films lattice-matched to GaAs. Near 1-eV single-junction GaNAsSb solar cells were produced. The best devices used a p-n heterojunction configuration and demonstrated a current density of 20.8 mA/cm2, a fill factor of 64 % and an open-circuit voltage of 0.39 V, corresponding to a bandgap-voltage offset of 0.57 V, comparable with the state-of-the-art for this type of solar cells. Post-growth annealing was found to be essential to improve Voc but was also found to degrade the material quality of the top layers. Alternatives are discussed to improve this process. Unintentional high background doping was identified as the main factor limiting the device performance. The use of Bi-surfactant mediated growth is proposed for the first time for this material system to reduce this background doping and preliminary results are presented. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Electrical Engineering 2017

abstract: Silicon photovoltaics is the dominant contribution to the global solar energy production. As increasing conversion efficiency has become one of the most important factors to lower the cost of photovoltaic systems, the idea of making a multijunction solar cell based on a silicon bottom cell has attracted broad interest. Here the potential of using dilute nitride GaNPAs alloys for a lattice-matched 3-terminal 2-junction Si-based tandem solar cell through multiscale modeling is investigated. To calculate the electronic band structure of dilute nitride alloys with relatively low computational cost, the sp^3 d^5 s^* s_N tight-binding model is chosen, as it has been demonstrated to obtain quantitatively correct trends for the lowest conduction band near Γ, L, and X for dilute-N GaNAs. A genetic algorithm is used to optimize the sp^3 d^5 s^* tight-binding model for pure GaP and GaAs for their optical properties. Then the optimized sp^3 d^5 s^* s_N parametrizations are obtained for GaNP and GaNAs by fitting to experimental bandgap values. After that, a virtual crystal approach gives the Hamiltonian for GaNPAs alloys. From their tight-binding Hamiltonian, the first-order optical response functions of dilute nitride GaNAs, GaNP, and GaNPAs are calculated. As the N mole fraction varies, the calculated critical optical features vary with the correct trends, and agree well with experiment. The calculated optical properties are then used as input for the solar device simulations based on Silvaco ATLAS. For device simulation, a bottom cell model is first constructed to generate performance results that agree well with a demonstrated high-efficiency Si heterojunction interdigitated back contact (IBC) solar cell reported by Kaneka. The front a-Si/c-Si interface is then replaced by a GaP/Si interface for the investigation of the sensitivity of the GaP/Si interface to interface defects in terms of degradation of the IBC cell performance, where we find that an electric field that induces strong band bending can significantly mitigate the impact of the interfacial traps. Finally, a lattice-matched 3-terminal 2-junction tandem model is built for performance simulation by stacking a dilute nitride GaNP(As) cell on the Si IBC cell connected through a GaP/Si interface. The two subcells operate quasi-independently. In this 3-terminal tandem model, traps at the GaP/Si interface still significantly impact the performance of the Si subcell, but their effects on the GaNP subcell are relatively small. Assuming the interfacial traps are well passivated, the tandem efficiency surpasses that of a single-junction Si cell, with values close to 33% based on realistic parameters. / Dissertation/Thesis / Doctoral Dissertation Electrical Engineering 2019

This thesis focuses on the analysis of the external quantum efficiency of quantum dot-enhanced multi-junction solar cells. Divided in four major parts, it uses the experimental methodology developed in the SUNLAB. At first, a model is introduced to calculate the external quantum efficiency of single and multi-junction solar cells. This model takes into account the semiconductor physics governing the electrical property of the solar cell. It furthermore takes into account the optical transmission and reflection in the semiconductor structure using a transfer matrix method. The calculated curve fits a single junction GaAs solar cell's external quantum efficiency to a high degree of precision. Finally, an InGaP/GaAs/Ge solar cell's external quantum efficiency is calculated and it reproduces accurately the behavior of a measured cell. Second, the reflectivity of a solar cell is studied. An analysis technique involving using the fast Fourier transform of the oscillation in the reflectivity is introduced. This technique extracts the thicknesses of the top and middle subcells. The reflectivity is subsequently calculated using the transfer matrix method and it reproduces the behavior of the measured samples. Third, the effect of the addition of quantum dots in the middle subcell is studied. It is demonstrated that they extend the absorption range of the middle subcell. This is completed by first modeling the quantum mechanical behavior of the electrons and holes in the nanostructure. Their emission and absorption properties are derived. Those derived properties are verified by experimentally measured photoluminescence and electroluminescence of the nanostructures. The resulting model is then compared to experimentally measured external quantum efficiencies of single junction and multi-junction quantum dot-enhanced solar cells. Finally, a study of the bottom subcell artifact is completed. Using the fill-factor bias experiment, each of the contribution of the light coupling and the internal voltage biasing is decoupled. For the measured sample, an optimal voltage of 2.1 V is found to minimize the artifact. At this point, the internal voltage biasing creates an artifact of 1 % and the light coupling artifact is 8 %.

Achieving high efficiency solar cells and concurrently driving down the cell cost has been among the key objectives for photovoltaic researchers to attain a lower levelized cost of energy (LCOE). While the performance of silicon (Si) based solar cells have almost saturated at an efficiency of ~25%, III-V compound semiconductor based solar cells have steadily shown performance improvement at approximately 1% (absolute) increase per year, with a recent record efficiency of 46%. However, the expensive cost has made it challenging for the high efficiency III-V solar cells to compete with the mainstream Si technology. Novel approaches to lower down the cost per watt for III-V solar cells will position them to be among the key contenders in the renewable energy sector. Integration of such high-efficiency III-V multijunction solar cells on significantly cheaper and large area Si substrate has the potential to address the future LCOE roadmaps by unifying the high-efficiency merits of III-V materials with low-cost and abundance of Si. However, the 4% lattice mismatch, thermal mismatch polar-on-nonpolar epitaxy makes the direct growth of GaAs on Si challenging, rendering the metamorphic cell sensitive to dislocations. The focus of this dissertation is to systematically investigate heterogeneously integrated III-V multijunction solar cells on Si substrate. Utilizing a combination of comprehensive solar cell modeling and experimental techniques, we seek to better understand the material properties and correlate them to improve the device performance, with simulation providing a very valuable feedback loop. Key technical design considerations and optimal performance projections are discussed for integrating metamorphic III-V multijunction solar cells on Si substrates for 1-sun and concentrated photovoltaics. Key factors limiting the “GaAs-on-Si” cell performance are identified, and novel approaches focused on minimizing threading dislocation density are discussed. Finally, we discuss a novel epitaxial growth path utilizing high-quality and thin epitaxial Ge layers directly grown on Si substrate to create virtual “Ge-on-Si” substrate for III-V-on-Si multijunction photovoltaics. With the plummeting price of Si solar cells accompanied with the tremendous headroom available for improving the III-V solar cell efficiencies, the future prospects for successful integration of III-V solar cell technology with Si substrate looks very promising to unlock an era of next generation of high-efficiency and low-cost photovoltaics. / Ph. D.

Σκοπός αυτής της διπλωματικής εργασίας είναι η θεωρητική μελέτη φωτοβολταϊκών πλαισίων χρησιμοποιούμενων σε διαστημικές εφαρμογές, περιγράφοντας την τεχνολογία και τη λειτουργία τους, καθώς και την ιστορική εξέλιξη τους τις τελευταίες δεκαετίες από το 1950 έως σήμερα. Στα πλαίσια αυτά περιγράφονται οι ηλιακές συστοιχίες για διαστημικές εφαρμογές, οι συνηθισμένοι τύποι ημιαγωγικών υλικών για τα πλαίσια, όπως το πυρίτιο Si και το αρσενιούχο γάλλιο GaAs και οι απαιτήσεις των. Αρχικά, μελετάται ποιες παράμετροι επηρεάζουν την απόδοση των φωτοβολταϊκών κυττάρων στο διάστημα και επιπλέον οι επιπτώσεις της διαστημικής ακτινοβολίας και θερμοκρασίας στην λειτουργία των πλαισίων. Στη συνέχεια παρουσιάζονται τα προηγμένα ηλιακά κύτταρα πυριτίου Si και τα υψηλής απόδοσης άμορφου πυριτίου που παρουσιάζουν βελτιωμένη ενεργειακή απόδοση του πλαισίου. Οι βέλτιστες παράμετροι των δομών για τις διαστημικές εφαρμογές, φαίνεται πλέον να επιτυγχάνονται με τα ευρέως χρησιμοποιούμενα ηλιακά κύτταρα πολυεπαφών multijunction MJ, που είναι κύτταρα ιδιαιτέρου τρόπου σχεδιασμού. Οι παράμετροι επηρεασμού της απόδοσης τους αναλύονται καθώς και οι επιπτώσεις των εξωτερικών συνθηκών. Μεγάλης σημασίας θεωρείται ο σχεδιασμός της ηλιακής συστοιχίας στο διάστημα και οι απαιτήσεις σχεδίασης για αξιόπιστη απόδοση και μεγάλη διάρκεια ζωής. Στη μελέτη αυτή αναλύουμε και τις δομές εκείνες που μπορούν να βελτιώσουν την απόδοση των διαστημικών ηλιακών κυττάρων. Οι πιο ελπιδοφόρες και πιο πολλά υποσχόμενες δομές είναι αυτές των μεταμορφικών «metamorphic» και ανεστραμμένων μεταμορφικών «inverted-metamorphic» ηλιακών κυττάρων σε σχέση με τα κλασικά "latticed matched" ηλιακά κύτταρα και αυτες οι δομές θα συνεχίσουν να βρίσκονται στο επίκεντρο για τις επόμενες δεκαετίες. Επιπλέον προϊόν της παρούσας διπλωματικής εργασίας, είναι η πειραματική μελέτη της συμπεριφοράς ενός φωτοβολταϊκού πλαισίου μονοκρυσταλλικού πυριτίου m-Si ισχύος αιχμής 80 W σε πραγματικές συνθήκες λειτουργίας στη γη, υπό την επίδραση διαφόρων εξωτερικών παραγόντων, όπως προσπίπτουσα ακτινοβολία, θερμοκρασία και γωνία κλίσης. Με στόχο την εκτίμηση της ενεργειακής απόδοσης και της ανίχνευσης της βέλτιστης τιμής αυτής πραγματοποιήθηκαν μετρήσεις με την βοήθεια του PVPM στη διάρκεια του έτους 2009 – 2010. Συγκεκριμένα περιλαμβάνονται δυο περίοδοι μετρήσεων: α) Απρίλιος 2009 έως Ιούλιος 2009, όπου πραγματοποιήθηκαν μετρήσεις ανά μια ώρα για όλες τις γωνίες κλίσης 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80ο (μια ημέρα κάθε εβδομάδα) με την βοήθεια της ρυμθιζόνεμης βάσης και β) Αύγουστος 2009 έως Μάρτιος 2010, όπου πραγματοποιήθηκαν ολοήμερες μετρήσεις ανά 5 λεπτά, κάθε εβδομάδα με την βοήθεια φορητού υπολογιστή σε συγκεκριμένη κλίση 38ο, που αντιστοιχεί στο γεωγραφικό πλάτος της περιοχής της Πάτρας. Όλα αυτά οδηγούν σε μια ολοκληρωμένη εικόνα της ενεργειακής συμπεριφοράς και απόδοσης του φωτοβολταϊκού πλαισίου μας καθώς και των συνθηκών που οδηγούν σε βέλτιστες φωτοβολταϊκές ιδιότητες Η ετήσια αποδιδόμενη ενέργεια υπολογίστηκε ελαφρώς υψηλότερη από μετρήσεις γενικά αναφερόμενες από το ΚΑΠΕ. Αυτό θεωρούμε ότι οφείλεται στο γεγονός ότι η διάταξη μας δεν κατέγραφε μετρήσεις καθ όλη τη διάρκεια του έτους με αποτέλεσμα να μην είναι ακριβής η διάρκεια της ημέρας και η τιμή της προσπίπτουσας ηλιακής ακτινοβολίας. Μέσω του PVsyst προγράμματος προσπαθήσαμε να προσομοιώσουμε την ενεργειακή απόδοση του πλαισίου μονοκρυσταλλικού πυριτίου υπολογιστικά τόσο με τα πειραματικά μετεωρολογικά δεδομένα όσο και με τα μετεωρολογικά δεδομένα μέσω του προγράμματος Meteonorm και να την συγκρίνουμε με την πειραματική και επιπλέον να βρούμε την βέλτιστη απόδοση του ανάλογα με την κλίση και τον προσανατολισμό του. Η εξομοίωση με δεδομένα του προγράμματος Meteonorm 6.1 έδωσε τη διαφορά της αποδιδόμενης ενέργειας κάθε περίπτωσης, μεταξύ αυτής και της προηγούμενης μεθόδου. / The purpose of this thesis, is the theoretical study of solar modules used in space applications, together with the description of their technology and operation, and the historical development in recent decades from 1950 to today. In this context we analyzed the solar arrays for space applications, the requirements of materials for solar cells and the common types of semiconductor materials for modules, such as silicon Si and gallium arsenide GaAs. Initially, we studied what external factors affect the performance of solar cells in space and also the effects of space radiation and temperature. Further, we described the advanced silicon solar cells and the high-efficiency amorphous silicon solar cells, that improve the energy efficiency significant. For the optimal solution for space applications, we then analyzed thoroughly the most widely used in space multijunction MJ solar cells and their design, the performance parameters and the effects of external factors. To summarize the theoretical study, we studied the design of the solar array in space and the design requirements for reliable performance and longevity. Finally, there are many ways we can improve the performance of space solar cells. The most promising methods are those of metamorphic «metamorphic» and reverse metamorphic «inverted-metamorphic» solar cells compared to the classic "latticed matched" solar cells and will continue to be in the forefront for decades to come. Additional to the subject of this thesis, is the experimental study of the behavior of a photovoltaic monocrystalline silicon module m-Si 80 W peak power at real operation conditions under the influence of various external factors such as incident radiation, temperature and tilt. In order to estimate the energy efficiency we took measurements with the help of PVPM in the year 2009 - 2010. Specifically, it consists of two measurement periods: a) April 2009 to July 2009, when measurements were taken every hour for all angles 0, 10, 20, 30, 40, 50, 60, 70, 80 every week with the help of special structure and b) August 2009 to March 2010, when measurements were made all day, every five minutes, each week with a notebook in a particular inclination 38ο, corresponding to the latitude of the region of Patras. All these help us to gain a comprehensive idea of their behavior and performance of our photovoltaic modules. We also observed variation in the results in comparison with CRES databases due to the fact that we could not continuously conduct every day of the year. Using PVsyst we tried to verify our experimental results and find the best solutions for the tilt and orientation of the PV modules. With the program PVsyst we tried to simulate the performance of monocrystalline silicon solar cell using computational frameworks and to compare them with the experimental results. Finally it was also simulated with the data given from the database of the program Meteronorm 6.1 so as to compare both methods.