Retrogenes are functional genes that are created through retroposition, whereby mature mRNA is reverse-transcribed and re-integrated into the genome. In this study, the following objectives were accomplished: (i) intrachromosomal- and interchromosomal-retroposed genes were located in H. sapiens, (ii) interchromosomal-retroposed genes were located in M. musculus, D. melanogaster, and C. elegans. To date, this is the first assay for intrachromosomal-retroposed genes in H. sapiens and interchromosomal-retroposed genes in C. elegans. Biases discovered include excess interchromosomal generation of retrogenes by chromosome X in H. sapiens, M. musculus, and D. melanogaster. Selection pressure created by the inactivation of the X chromosome during male meiosis appears to be at least partially responsible for this phenomenon. In addition, excess interchromosomal recruitment of retrogenes by chromosome X was observed in H. sapiens. The driving force appears to be an interplay between selection for female-beneficial genes and selection for male-beneficial genes. No other chromosome biases were discovered.

Retrogenes are functional genes that are created through retroposition, whereby mature mRNA is reverse-transcribed and re-integrated into the genome. In this study, the following objectives were accomplished: (i) intrachromosomal- and interchromosomal-retroposed genes were located in H. sapiens, (ii) interchromosomal-retroposed genes were located in M. musculus, D. melanogaster, and C. elegans. To date, this is the first assay for intrachromosomal-retroposed genes in H. sapiens and interchromosomal-retroposed genes in C. elegans. Biases discovered include excess interchromosomal generation of retrogenes by chromosome X in H. sapiens, M. musculus, and D. melanogaster. Selection pressure created by the inactivation of the X chromosome during male meiosis appears to be at least partially responsible for this phenomenon. In addition, excess interchromosomal recruitment of retrogenes by chromosome X was observed in H. sapiens. The driving force appears to be an interplay between selection for female-beneficial genes and selection for male-beneficial genes. No other chromosome biases were discovered.

A variety of prey species are able to detect predators by odours emanating from their urine, feces, fur and anal glands. However, it is unknown whether the odour of a predator’s blood also contains information signalling “predator” to a prey. The aim of the present study was therefore to assess if blood odour from a cat elicits avoidance or anxiety responses in CD-1 mice (Mus musculus). A two-compartment test arena was used to assess place preference, motor activity and fecal excretions when the mice were simultaneously presented with cat blood and a blank control. Additionally, the mice were tested with horse blood and N-pentyl acetate, a fruity odour. The mice did not show avoidance of any of the three odours. Nevertheless, the mice were significantly less active when exposed to cat blood in comparison to horse blood, but did not increase defecation when exposed to cat blood. This suggests that the information mice get by the odour of cat blood did not contain the signal “predator”.

Pastaruoju metu tyrimams dažniausiai naudojami žinduoliai, kadangi rezultatai šiek tiek atspindi žmogaus organizme vykstančius procesus. Šis darbas parengtas analizuojant besivystančias paukščio embriono sistemas: tai būdas, leidžiantis sutaupyti lėšų bei dėka trumpo embrioninio vystymosi laikotarpio suteikiantis galimybę operatyviam rezultatų gavimui. Iki šiol literatūroje neradome duomenų apie pirmojo raumens susitraukimo ypatybes, o šį procesą įtakojančios nervų sistemos vystymąsi apibūdina keletas hipotezių. Taigi darbo tikslas buvo išsiaiškinti pirmojo susitraukiančiojo raumens atsiradimo laiką, jo morfologiją (1) ir išanalizuoti ankstyvajame embriogenezės laikotarpyje kontraktilų aparatą įtakojančios nervų sistemos vystymosi ypatumus (2). Tyrimams naudojome kalakuto ir vištos embrionus – kadangi skirtingų porūšių skirtumai mums nebuvo svarbūs, palyginimas tarp minėtų paukščių embrionų neatliktas. Embrionai buvo stebimi in vivo, tyrimams in vitro atlikti buvo naudojami šie molekulinės biologijos metodai: paruoštų pjūvių dažymas histo- ir imunohistochemiškai, polimerazės grandininės reakcijos, ląstelių kultūrų auginimas ir Western blotas. Pirmasis aktyvus raumens susitraukimas kalakuto embrione atsiranda 19-22 Hamburgerio Hamiltono stadijoje, t.y., praėjus 116 val. nuo inkubacijos pradžios: porinis raumuo sudarytas iš keturių susiliejusių miomerų, yra 1 mm ilgio ir 0,1 mm pločio – šis iš dviejų ląstelių tipų sudarytas audinys atsakingas už pirmuosius aktyvius embriono... [toliau žr. visą tekstą] / The purpose of the study was to characterize the first contraction of an isolated muscle in turkey embryo and to determine whether at early stages of chicken brain development during neurogenesis, cells from the astrocytic lineage are present in relevant amounts, where they are located in the neural tube, and to what extend brain regional differences exist. MATERIAL AND METHODS. From the 3rd day of incubation on until the 6th day the embryos were continuously watched through a cellophane window in the eggshell. For histology the embryos were fixed in Bouin's fluid, then completely cut in serial sections of 5 microm thickness and stained according to Masson-Goldner's trichrome procedure plus resorcin-fuchsin. For gene expression analysis markers for stem cells, neurons and astrocytes were used. Immunohistochemistry was made against SMI 312 and GFAP antibodies and Western blot against GFAP as well. RESULTS. A paired muscle 1 mm long and 0.1 mm broad, derived by fusion of the four occipital myomeres, is responsible for the first individual contraction. The contraction produces a stretching in the neck region. The muscle named M. occipitalis primordialis consists of four end-to-end connected groups of mononucleated muscle cells. The muscle contains two types of cells according to the cell nuclei. The elastic rod-shaped notochord represents an endoskeleton. Immediately after contraction it brings the body of the embryo back into its former shape. We also demonstrate that specific... [to full text]

It is essential for prey species to be able to detect predators to avoid them. The sense of smell is used by a number of prey species for this purpose. The aim of the present study was to assess if one of the odourants that make up a predator odour is sufficient to induce a behavioural response in mice (Mus musculus). Two predator odourants were used, 2,2-dimethylthietane and methyl-2-phenylethyl sulfide, which are both found in the secretions of natural predators of mice. An odourant found in fruits, n-pentyl acetate, was also used. All three odourants were presented at a concentration that was a factor of 100 above the olfactory detection threshold of mice. Ten adult predator-naïve CD-1 mice were individually put in a two-compartment chamber one of which contained an odourant while the other contained a near-odourless solvent (diethyl phthalate). The results indicated that methyl-2-phenylethyl sulfide was actively avoided by the mice. Towards 2,2-dimethylthietane and n-pentyl acetate, in contrast, the mice behaved indifferent. Further, the results suggest a significant correlation between the number of switches between the two compartments of the test chamber and the test sessions when the animals were presented with n-pentyl acetate, but not when they were presented with the predator odourants. The results support the notion of an innate fear response towards the predator odourant methyl-2-phenylethyl sulfide in mice, but further studies with more animals and different concentrations of the odourants are necessary.

Der Einsatz von Ex-vivo-Modellen ermöglicht die experimentelle Untersuchung isolierter Organe, die vom Gesamtorganismus unbeeinflusst sind. Für viele Spezies und Organe sind solche Modelle bereits beschrieben. Wird das Organ dabei perfundiert, stehen flusskonstante und druckkonstante Perfusion zur Auswahl. Für den Larynx des Pferdes existiert in der Literatur bisher nur ein einziges flusskonstant perfundiertes Modell. Im Bereich der Pferdemedizin können solche Modelle helfen, neue Behandlungsoptionen der sogenannten recurrent laryngeal neuropathy (RLN) zu entwickeln, bei der es zu einer Atrophie des Musculus cricoarytaenoideus dorsalis (CAD) kommt. Die Studie hatte zum Ziel, ein druckkonstant perfundiertes Ex-vivo-Modell des equinen Larynx zu etablieren, in dessen Fokus insbesondere die Funktionalität des CAD stand. Hierzu wurden in zwei Vorversuchsphasen verschiedene Parameter auf ihre Eignung als Marker für die Vitalität des entnommenen Kehlkopfes getestet. Die ermittelten Parameter wurden dann in den Hauptversuchen verwendet, um die Vitalität des perfundierten Kehlkopfes zu Beginn und am Ende der Perfusion zu untersuchen. Für die Untersuchungen wurden Kehlköpfe von 16 Pferden verwendet. Diese wurden im direkten Anschluss an die Euthanasie frisch entnommen und im Labor an einen Perfusionskreislauf angeschlossen. Hierzu wurde eine modifizierte Tyrode-Lösung beidseits über die Arteria thyroidea cranialis perfundiert. Die Lösung wurde über den gesamten Versuchszeitraum mit Carbogen begast und somit ein pH-Wert von 7,35 bis 7,45 gehalten. Es wurde ein konstanter Perfusionsdruck von 9,81 kPA eingestellt. Im Anschluss an die Adaptationsphase wurden die Vitalitätsparameter zur Überprüfung der Unversehrtheit und Funktionalität der arteriellen Gefäßversorgung und des CAD getestet. Neben der myogenen Autoregulation wurde die Reaktion der Gefäße auf die Zugabe von Noradrenalin (NA), Nitroprussid (NO) und Papaverin (Papa) als Vasokonstriktor (NA) und Vasodilatatoren (NO, Papa) ermittelt. Des Weiteren wurde die Kontraktilität und Funktionalität des CAD durch Messung des intramuskulären Druckes nach elektrischer Stimulation überprüft. Zusätzlich wurden aus dem Perfusat Proben zur Messung von Laktat und der Aktivität der Laktat-Dehydrogenase (LDH) zu drei Zeitpunkten entnommen. Für die statistische Auswertung wurden eine einfache ANOVA mit wiederholten Messungen sowie der Holm-Sidak-Test als Post-hoc-Test im Falle signifikanter Unterschiede verwendet. Dabei wurde eine Wahrscheinlichkeit von p < 0,05 als statistisch signifikant angenommen. Im Hauptversuch konnten an n = 5 Kehlköpfen Perfusionen über einen Zeitraum von 352 ± 18,59 Minuten durchgeführt werden. Die myogene Autoregulation zu Beginn der Perfusion war bei drei Kehlköpfen und zum Ende der Perfusion bei vier Kehlköpfen sichtbar. Auf die Zugabe von NA reagierten am Beginn der Perfusion vier Kehlköpfe und am Ende der Perfusion alle fünf Kehlköpfe mit einer Vasokonstriktion. NO erzeugte am Versuchsbeginn bei vier Kehlköpfen eine Vasodilatation. Die Zugabe von NO und Papa führte am Versuchsende in allen Fällen zu einer Vasodilatation. Die Kontraktilität des CAD nach elektrischer Stimulation konnte in allen Fällen am Versuchsbeginn und Versuchsende gemessen werden. Bei Überprüfung der Funktionalität des CAD zeigten sich insgesamt heterogene Messergebnisse. Im Verlauf der Perfusion stiegen sowohl die Konzentration des Laktats als auch die Aktivität der LDH statistisch signifikant an, lagen aber beide im Bereich der für das Pferd in der Literatur beschriebenen Normwerte. Die vorliegende Arbeit beschreibt erstmalig die Etablierung eines druckkonstant perfundierten Ex-vivo-Modells des equinen Larynx. Über verschiedene Vitalitätstests wurde die Intaktheit und Funktionalität des perfundierten Kehlkopfes überprüft. Die myogene Autoregulation hat sich als sinnvoller aber störanfälliger Test erwiesen. Die Applikation vasoaktiver Substanzen zur Überprüfung der Funktionalität der arteriellen Gefäße hat sich als sehr zuverlässig gezeigt. Der Test auf Kontraktilität des CAD hat sich als Vitalitätsparameter mit geringer Aussagekraft gezeigt. Der Test auf Funktionalität des CAD hingegen hatte eine höhere Aussagekraft über die Vitalität des entnommenen Kehlkopfes, zeigte aber auch interindividuelle Schwankungen. Das in der vorliegenden Arbeit beschriebene Ex-vivo-Modell stellt eine solide Grundlage für weitere Untersuchungen auf dem Gebiet der Kehlkopflähmung dar.

Summary: Title: Kinesiologic analysis of function of selected upper limb muscles after female breast augmentation Objectives: The aim of this research is to analyze the functionality and scope of involvement of the injured muscles due to plastic surgical augmentation procedure at pre-selected physical activities before and after surgery a few months later (specifically, three months - the time the patient left the recovery) using a noninvasive surface electromyography (EMG). Methods: A Case Study measuring method of noninvasive surface electromyography in combination with the method of temporal phase shifts involved in the activation of muscle movement, accompanied by a support method of integrated EMG. Results: There differences have been observed in the timing of individual muscles measured during performing selected testing exercises before and after completion of the augmentation plastic surgery operatios. Furthermore, the possibility of the loss of muscle strength has been detected by some measured muscles and this has the potential to take over functions of damaged muscles. Key words: plastic surgery, female breast augmentation, surface electromyography, upper limb muscles, musculus pectoralis major

Speciation, the formation of new species, is an essential evolutionary process that causes species diversity on the Earth. At the beginning of this process is the separation of two populations by a reproductive barrier that prevents gene flow between these populations. One of the mechanisms, which enable reproductive isolation, is hybrid sterility (HS). It is a mechanism of postzygotic isolation that is described in a number of eukaryotes. The first discovered gene of hybrid sterility in vertebrates is the mice gene Hst1, later identified as gene Prdm9. By genetic and molecular analysis the locus on the X chromosome was determined, whose interaction with Prdm9 causes sterility or reduced fitness in male hybrids. This locus contains two genetic factors: Hstx1, causing an abnormal morphology of spermatozoa, and Hstx2, causing an arrest in spermatogenesis in pachytene spermatocytes and sterility. In my thesis I focus on the effect of deletion of a candidate hybrid sterility gene Fmr1nb on the X chromosome. The analysis of males B6N.Fmr1nbmut with deletion variants of the Fmr1nb gene showed that Fmr1nb is one of the factors influencing spermatogenesis. An increase in morphologic abnormalities in spermatozoa occurred in males with Fmr1nb gene deletion. This phenotype is identical with Hstx1. The effect...

Title: Kinesiologic analysis of function of selected upper limb muscles after female breast augmentation Objectives: The aim of this research is to analyze the functionality and scope of involvement of the injured muscles due to plastic surgical augmentation procedure at pre-selected physical activities before and after surgery a few months later (specifically, three months - the time the patient left the recovery) using a noninvasive surface electromyography (EMG). Methods: A Case Study measuring method of noninvasive surface electromyography in combination with the method of temporal phase shifts involved in the activation of muscle movement, accompanied by a support method of integrated EMG. Results: There differences have been observed in the timing of individual muscles measured during performing selected testing exercises before and after completion of the augmentation plastic surgery operatios. Furthermore, the possibility of the loss of muscle strength has been detected by some measured muscles and this has the potential to take over functions of damaged muscles. Key words: plastic surgery, female breast augmentation, surface electromyography, upper limb muscles, musculus pectoralis major

Title: Viscousand elastic properties of soft tissue"in situ" Goals and methods: The aim of this thesis is to measure the viscoelastic properties of human soleus muscle and Achilles tendonin vivo and post mortem in situ. It is a pilot study that uses myotonometry as the method of measurement. Based on the response of connective tissues on deformation made by tip of myotonometer, resp. its viscoelastic properties, curves in graphsare created. Three main described parameters of thecurveare steepness, deflection and its surface area. Main goal of the experiment is to compare properties of different types of tissue and their potential differences while denervated or innervated. Results of this study may help with better understanding of the soft tissues behavior in response to manual therapeutic contact. The study also describes the differences between in vivo and post mortem tissue properties that may be help further studies which use post mortem tissues to predict in vivo behavior. Results: Soft tissues in vivo have higher viscosity. In comparison, post mortem tissues have significantly higher stiffness and energy dissipation than in vivo. Elasticproperties of denervated soft tissue manifest with approx. 7 secondsdelay. Viscoelastic properties of muscle tissueshow changes depending on deeper...