Naming speed, motor skill, and auditory temporal processing (ATP) are constructs that are important to reading and language. These variables require processing timing information inherent in the stimulus or processing stimuli rapidly. ATP deficits are found in individuals with reading impairments, but studies are conflicting regarding the relationship between reading and ATP. This study examined relationships between naming speed, motor speed, and ATP, and centered on possible factors why inconsistencies have occurred across studies examining the association between reading and ATP. If the timing element of naming speed (rapid automatized naming-RAN) and of motor speed is common to ATP, then RAN and motor speed should predict thresholds for three auditory tasks (CMR, backward masking, and the precedence effect with TOJ) known to require temporal processing. Tasks were administered to adult participants in order to examine the effects with skilled readers. Many of the variables were skewed and there were multiple outliers that altered the analyses. Ultimately, 75 participants were included in the final data set. Results indicated that RAN did not predict thresholds for any of the masking tasks given. However, motor speed predicted thresholds for one CMR and two backward masking tasks, suggesting that motor speed should be controlled for in research assessing the contribution of ATP to reading or language. Neither naming speed nor motor speed predicted localization performance. Non-verbal intelligence predicted performance on several of the masking tasks, consistent with previous research. Performance on all three auditory tasks was similar to that reported in the literature assessing smaller samples of participants. Although the suggestion of a general timing component is not supported, the relationships found between motor speed and several auditory temporal measures indicate that the underlying timing elements are not independent.

The structure of phonological processing for typically developing children has been debated over the past two decades. Recent research has indicated that phonological processing is best explained by a single underlying phonological ability (e.g., Anthony and Lonigan, 2004). The current study had two goals. The first goal was to determine the structure of phonological processing for school-age children with mild intellectual disabilities (MID). The second goal was to determine the relationship between the components of phonological processing and expressive and receptive language ability. The participants were 222 school-age children identified by their schools as having MID. Confirmatory factor analysis was utilized to determine the structure of phonological processing. The results indicated that a model with one phonological awareness factor and one naming speed factor explained the data better than competing models with a single latent factor or more than two latent factors. There was a negative significant relationship between phonological processing and naming speed. There were positive bivariate relationships between phonological processing and expressive and receptive language. There were negative bivariate relationships between naming speed and expressive and receptive language. These results are consistent with other research findings with typically developing children, indicating a similarity in the relationships between phonological process and language for children with MID. Theoretical and instructional implications are discussed.

Deficiencies in mathematics skill constrain students’ educational achievement and subsequently, their employment outcomes. This study included 265 school-identified students with mild intellectual disabilities. The research questions investigated the extent to which phonological awareness, color naming speed, and vocabulary knowledge, was related to mathematics skill after controlling for grade level via regression analyses. Further, the mediating effects of expressive vocabulary on the relationship between receptive vocabulary and mathematics skill as well as the indirect effect of receptive vocabulary knowledge on mathematics skill through expressive vocabulary were examined. The findings indicated that after controlling for grade level, phonological awareness, naming speed, and vocabulary knowledge were significantly related to mathematics skill. The mediating effects of expressive vocabulary as well as the indirect effects of receptive vocabulary knowledge on mathematics skill were also significant.

Students with moderate intellectual disabilities (MoID) typically are not taught decoding skills because they have difficulty mastering critical blending skills. In response to this skill deficit among students with MoID, an Initial Phonics instructional sequence was created that included student development of rapid and automatic retrieval of taught letter-sound correspondences to a level of mastery before teaching the skill of blending. For each of 16 students with MoID (ages 6-15), mastery criterion of letter-sound automaticity phases was determined by their individual naming speed as measured by the Rapid Object Naming (RON) subtest of the Comprehensive Test of Phonological Processing (CTOPP). Visual analysis of graphically displayed single-case data revealed a functional relation between simultaneous prompting procedures and letter-sound correspondences, automaticity, and blending acquisition for all students. Furthermore, the use of hierarchical linear growth modeling (HLGM) revealed statistical significance for: (a) the impact of daily instruction on the development of letter-sound correspondences, automaticity, and blending in terms of average student growth per instructional session, (b) variability between student growth trajectories within automaticity and blending phases, (c) student pretest scores on RON as an explanatory variable for differences between growth trajectories within automaticity treatment phases, and (d) the extent to which the number of sessions to mastery within automaticity phases and student age predicted acquisition of blending skills. The purpose of identifying explanatory/predictor variables was to classify cognitive predictors for students with MoID who successfully acquire blending skills.

The Double Deficit Hypothesis of dyslexia posits that students can be grouped into four distinct groups: (a) average readers, (b) students with phonological deficits, (c) students with naming speed deficits, and (d) students with double deficits: those having both (b) and (c). The present study examines the stability of the Double Deficit groups from Kindergarten to Grade 2. 214 children were assessed in Kindergarten and subsequently tested in early Grade 1, late Grade 1, and Grade 2. Tests administered at each time included measures of naming speed, phonological awareness, and a variety of reading measures. Discriminant analyses indicated that approximately 70% of Grade 2 children were successfully classified by Kindergarten measures. Contingency analyses indicated moderate stability from Kindergarten to Grade 2 and more movement between groups between Kindergarten and Grade 1. The Double Deficit groups differed in reading achievement at each testing time, with the Double Deficit group obtaining the lowest scores. Implications for early assessment and intervention are discussed. / Thesis (Master, Education) -- Queen's University, 2010-01-06 12:54:02.063

Deficiencies in mathematics skill constrain students’ educational achievement and subsequently, their employment outcomes. This study included 265 school-identified students with mild intellectual disabilities. The research questions investigated the extent to which phonological awareness, color naming speed, and vocabulary knowledge, was related to mathematics skill after controlling for grade level via regression analyses. Further, the mediating effects of expressive vocabulary on the relationship between receptive vocabulary and mathematics skill as well as the indirect effect of receptive vocabulary knowledge on mathematics skill through expressive vocabulary were examined. The findings indicated that after controlling for grade level, phonological awareness, naming speed, and vocabulary knowledge were significantly related to mathematics skill. The mediating effects of expressive vocabulary as well as the indirect effects of receptive vocabulary knowledge on mathematics skill were also significant.

Tidigare forskning har visat att barn med typisk utveckling går från en visuell strategi till en fonologisk. Huruvida denna utveckling sker hos personer med utvecklingsstörning är oklart. De flesta forskare är överens om att dessa personer har en nedsättning i den fonologiska loopen. Om denna nedsättning beror på strukturella avvikelser eller utvecklingsförsening är forskarna inte eniga om. Det är även oklart var en eventuell strukturnedsättning skulle sitta. Studiens syfte var att undersöka om ungdomar med utvecklingsstörning använder sig av en fonologisk strategi, styrd av den fonologiska loopen, vid visuellt presenterat arbetsminnestest. Ordlängdseffekten, spann på bilder, ordproduktionshastighet samt korrelationen mellan de två sistnämnda undersöktes. Resultaten jämfördes mot en mental kontrollgrupp matchad i mental ålder. Ingen av grupperna uppvisade någon ordlängdseffekt på arbetsminnets kapacitetsnivå (spannivå) men den mental åldersmatchade gruppen uppvisade detta på spannivå plus en enhet.  Båda grupperna visade en positiv korrelation mellan spann och ordproduktionshastighet. Det går att diskutera hurvida testning har skett av ordproduktionshastighet eller benämningshastighet. Det är därför svårt att dra slutsatser utifrån resultaten men de skulle kunna tyda på att ungdomarna med utvecklingsstörning använder sig av en annan minnesstrategi än barnen med typisk utveckling. Möjligtvis använder sig ungdomarna med utvecklingsstörning av en fonologisk strategi men spekultioner om eventuell koppling till långtidsminnet eller användning av en visuell strategi tas upp. En förklaring till att de använder sig av en annan strategi skulle kunna vara att de faktiskt har en strukturell nedsättning i någon del av den fonologiska loopen. / Previous research has found that children with typical development begin with a visual memory strategy and then develop a phonological strategy. Whether this development takes place in individuals with intellectual disabilities is unclear. Most researchers agree that they seem to have a deficiency in the phonological loop. Researchers disagree whether the deficiency is caused by a structural deviation or a developmental delay. What is also unclear is where a possible structural deviation would be located. The purpose of this study was to investigate if adolescents with intellectual disabilities use a phonological memory strategy, controlled by the phonological loop, at a visually presented memory span test. Word length effect, span level on pictures, speech rate and the correlation between the latter two was investigated. The results were compared to a control group, matched for mental age. None of the groups showed any word length effect at their working memory capacity level but the control group showed a word length effect at capacity level plus one unit. Both of the groups showed a positive correlation between speech rate and span. It can be discussed whether speech rate or naming speed is tested. Owing to that it is difficult to draw any conclusions from the results. Regardless of what we have tested the results could indicate that the adolescents with intellectual disability use a different memory strategy than the children with typical development. One possible conclusion is that the adolescents with intellectual disability apply a phonological memory strategy but speculations about the use of long-term memory and a visual strategy are also discussed. One explanation could be that adolescents with intellectual disability have a structural deficiency in the phonological loop.