Thesis (MScAgric (Horticulture))--University of Stellenbosch, 2010. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: The size of the navel-end opening is an important parameter for external fruit quality in navel oranges [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck]. The application of 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid (2,4-D) to increase the percentage of closed navel-ends and reduce the size of the navel-end opening was conducted on six different navel orange cultivars. Treatments were applied at full bloom (FB), 100% petal drop (PD), as well as 2 weeks (2 WAPD) and 4 weeks after 100% petal drop (4 WAPD), at 15 mg·L-1 to 45 mg·L-1, to determine the most effective timing and concentration. The application of 2,4-D at FB consistently decreased the average navel-end size (all fruit) and increased the percentage of closed navel-ends in all the cultivars, with later applications at PD, 2 WAPD and 4 WAPD being generally ineffective, regardless of the concentration applied. There were no major negative side effects on internal and external fruit quality, except for the reduction in juice content (%), especially with the later treatments. Therefore, 15 mg·L-1 2,4-D at FB can be applied to increase the percentage of closed navel-ends and possibly increase export packouts. Navel oranges have a small secondary fruit located inside the primary fruit at the stylar-end and an opening at the stylar-end called the navel-end opening or the stylar-end aperture. Fruit growth and development was studied in three navel orange cultivars by measuring the primary fruit diameter, the secondary fruit diameter and the navel-end opening fortnightly, using both destructive and non-destructive sampling methods. The relationships between the primary fruit size, the secondary fruit size and the navel-end opening size were studied using correlation analysis. In addition, the effect of 2,4-D on fruit morphology, when applied as a treatment to reduce the size of the navel-end opening, was also evaluated on the same cultivars. The primary fruit, the secondary fruit and the navel-end opening followed a similar developmental pattern, although the navel-end opening developed later, about six weeks after FB. The primary fruit size was not related to the size of the secondary fruit or the navel-end opening. Similarly, the size of the navel-end opening was not related to the size of the secondary fruit. No negative effects were noted on the primary fruit morphology when 2,4-D was applied. Fruit splitting is a major physiological disorder of ‘Marisol’ Clementine mandarin (Citrus reticulata) fruit. The effect of application of 2,4-D on fruit splitting and fruit quality was evaluated on ‘Marisol’ Clementine mandarin trees grafted on Troyer citrange rootstock. Treatments included an untreated control, 2,4-D applied at 15 mg·L-1 or 25 mg·L-1 at FB and 15 mg·L-1 or 25 mg·L-1 at PD. The application of 2,4-D reduced fruit splitting in ‘Marisol’ Clementine fruit. Internal fruit quality was not affected by the treatments, however, the fruit developed a coarse rind due to enlarged oil glands and the styles stayed attached on the fruit until harvest. Therefore, although 2,4-D reduced fruit splitting, it cannot be recommended at the timings and concentrations evaluated. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Die grootte van die nawel-ent opening is ‘n belangrike parameter vir eksterne vrugkwaliteit van nawel lemoene [Citrus sinensis (L.) Osbeck]. Die toediening van 2,4-dichlorofenoksie asynsuur (2,4-D) om die persentasie geslote nawel-ente te vermeerder en die grootte van die nawel-ent opening te verklein is uitgevoer op ses verskillende nawel lemoen kultivars. Behandelings is toegedien by volblom (FB), 100% blomblaarval (PD), asook 2 weke (2WAPD) en 4 weke na 100% blomblaarval (4 WAPD), teen 15 mg·L-1 tot 45 mg·L-1, om die mees effektiewe tyd van toediening en konsentrasie te bepaal. Die toediening van 2,4-D by FB het herhaaldelik die gemiddelde nawel-ent grootte (alle vrugte) verminder en die persentasie geslote nawel-ente vermeerder in al die kultivars, terwyl die later toediening by PD, 2 WAPD en 4 WAPD oor die algemeen nie effektief was nie, ongeag die konsentrasie toegedien. Daar was geen noemenswaardige negatiewe effekte op interne en eksterne vrugkwaliteit nie, behalwe vir ‘n verlaging in die sapinhoud (%) van vrugte, veral by die later behandelings. Dus kan 15 mg·L-1 2,4-D by FB toegedien word om die persentasie geslote nawel-ente te vermeerder en moontlik ook die uitvoerpersentasie te verhoog. Nawel lemoene het ‘n klein sekondêre vrug binne die primêre vrug aan die styl-ent en ‘n opening by die styl-ent wat die nawel-ent opening of die styl-ent opening genoem word. Die vruggroei en ontwikkeling van drie nawel kultivars is bestudeer deur die primêre en sekondêre vrugdeursnit en die nawel-ent opening elke twee weke te meet, deur gebruik te maak van destruktiewe en niedestruktiewe monsterneming. Die effek van 2,4-D op vrugmorfologie, toegedien as ‘n behandeling om die nawel-ent grootte te verklein, is ook ge-evalueer op dieselfde kultivars. Die primêre vrug, die sekondêre vrug en die nawel-ent opening het dieselfde ontwikkelingspatroon gevolg, alhoewel die nawel-ent opening later ontwikkel het. Daar was geen sterk verwantskap tussen die primêre vruggrootte en die sekondêre vruggrootte of die grootte van die nawel-ent opening nie. Daar was ook nie ‘n vewantskap tussen die grootte van die nawel-ent opening en die sekondêre vruggrootte nie. Geen negatiewe effekte op vrugmorfologie as gevolg van die 2,4-D toediening is waargeneem nie. Vrugsplit is ‘n belangrike fisiologiese abnormaliteit van ‘Marisol’ Clementine (Citrus reticulata) vrugte. Die effek van 2,4-D op vrugsplit en vrugkwaliteit is ge-evalueer op ‘Marisol’ Clementine mandaryn bome op Troyer citrange onderstamme. Die behandelings het ‘n onbehandelde kontrole, 2,4-D toegedien teen 15 mg·L-1 of 25 mg·L-1 by FB en 15 mg·L-1 of 25 mg·L-1 by PD ingesluit. Die toediening van 2,4-D het vrugsplit verminder. Interne vrugkwaliteit was nie geaffekteeer deur die behandelings nie, maar die vrugte het ‘n growwe skil ontwikkel as gevolg van vergrote oliekliere en die style het aangeheg gebly aan die vrugte tot oestyd. Dus, alhoewel 2,4-D vrugsplit verminder het, kan dit nie aanbeveel word teen die tyd van toediening en konsentrasie soos ge-evalueer in hierdie studie nie.

Dentre as diversas doenças que podem acometer os neonatos bovinos, as onfalopatias destacam-se como sendo uma das mais importantes devido a sua alta incidência e consequentes perdas econômicas. A porção do umbigo que permanece em contato com o meio ambiente contaminado aumenta a exposição do neonato aos microrganismos e as chances de ocorrer uma onfalopatia infecciosa, principalmente quando há falhas no manejo dos bezerros (fornecimento de colostro e cura do umbigo) e de higiene do ambiente em que eles vivem. Os componentes do umbigo representam uma importante porta de entrada para os microrganismos, podendo levar à infecção ascendente, com complicações secundárias, o que aumenta a geração de prejuízos econômicos. Com a finalidade de se evitar tais consequências, a realização da identificação dos microrganismos mais frequentemente encontrados nessa circunstância, assim como o conhecimento do perfil de sensibilidade dos mesmos, faz-se necessária, pois, com eles, é possível se direcionar a antibioticoterapia, minimizando o desenvolvimento de resistência bacteriana, além do tempo e custos do tratamento. Diante da importância dessa enfermidade, da escassez de informações sobre o assunto e da premissa de que o umbigo é uma importante porta de entrada a agentes infecciosos, podendo ocorrer bacteremia e outras complicações, o presente estudo realizou a identificação dos agentes bacterianos isolados a partir da secreção do umbigo e de amostras de sangue de bezerros de até 30 dias de vida com onfalopatia infecciosa. Além disso, verificou a sensibilidade dos microrganismos isolados frente a alguns antimicrobianos e a influência de alguns fatores sobre a presença da enfermidade e características dos isolamentos bacterianos. Foram avaliados 417 bezerros da raça Holandesa, machos ou fêmeas, oriundos de propriedades leiteiras localizadas no interior do Estado de São Paulo, desde a primeira semana até os 30 dias de vida, dos quais, 32 apresentaram onfalopatia infecciosa. Os resultados obtidos evidenciaram influência de alguns fatores do ambiente com a ocorrência de onfalopatias infecciosas e com o tipo de isolamento (único ou misto) encontrado nas amostras de secreção do umbigo; alterações do exame físico em função da coloração de Gram das bactérias encontradas nas amostras de sangue; e características das culturas obtidas em função do local de isolamento das bactérias (umbigo ou sangue) e em função do tipo de isolamento em amostras de secreção do umbigo. Durante o exame físico específico dos componentes umbilicais, foi observado que o exame ultrassonográfico é um recurso semiológico mais acurado na identificação das afecções umbilicais, principalmente as intra-abdominais, do que a palpação abdominal bimanual. Ainda, neste estudo, foi possível verificar que os microrganismos isolados a partir da secreção das estruturas umbilicais de bezerros com onfalopatia infecciosa foram, em sua maioria, Gram negativos, sendo mais frequentemente isolada Escherichia spp. (31,03%). Outras bactérias também foram isoladas, como Streptococcus spp. (13,8%), Klebsiella spp. (10,34%) e Proteus spp. (10,34%). No geral, as bactérias isoladas nas estruturas umbilicais foram resistentes a cefalexina, clindamicina, enrofloxacina, tetraciclina, benzilpenicilina, trimetoprim/sulfametoxazol, ampicilina e oxacilina. Observou-se, ainda, que a maioria dos microrganismos isolados a partir do sangue de bezerros com onfalopatia infecciosa foram Gram positivos, sendo Staphylococcus spp. (62,5%) o gênero mais frequentemente isolado. As bactérias isoladas no sangue foram, em geral, resistentes a ácido fusídico, benzilpenicilina, eritromicina, amoxicilina/ácido clavulânico, cefpodoxima, ceftiofur, cloranfenicol, nitrofurantoína e piperacilina. / Among the several diseases that can affect newborn calves, omphalopathies stand out as the most important due to their high incidence and consequent economic losses. The portion of the navel that remains in contact with the contaminated environment intensifies the neonate\'s exposure to the microorganisms and the chances of infectious omphalopathies occur; especially when there are errors in the management of the calves (colostrum supply and navel care) and in the sanitation of the environment in which they live. The components of the umbilicus represent an important entryway for microorganisms, which can lead to ascending infection with secondary complications, which increases the production of economic losses. In order to avoid such consequences, the identification of the most frequently found microorganisms in these circumstances, as well as the knowledge of their sensitivity profile, are required. Consequently, it is possible to target antibiotic therapy, minimizing both the development of bacterial resistance, and time and treatment costs. Given the importance of this disease, the scarcity of information on the subject, and the premise that the navel is an important entryway to infectious agents, leading to bacteremia and other complications, the present study isolated and identified the bacterial agents from the navel secretion and from blood samples of calves up to 30 days old with infectious omphalopathy; as well as verified the sensitivity of the microorganisms isolated against some antimicrobials, the influence of some factors on the presence of the disease, and characteristics of the bacterial isolates. We evaluated 417 male and female Holstein calves, raised in dairy farms placed in the State of Sao Paulo, from the first week up to 30 days of life. Thirty-two of the evaluated calves had infectious omphalopathy. Results evidenced the influence of some environmental factors on the occurrence of infectious omphalopathies and the type of isolation (single or mixed) found in the samples of navel secretion; the alterations found on physical examination along with the Gram staining of the bacteria found in the blood samples; and the characteristics of the cultures obtained along with the site of isolation of the bacteria (navel or blood) and the type of isolation in samples of navel secretion. During the specific examination of the umbilical components, it was observed that the ultrasonographic exam is a more accurate semiological resource in the identification of umbilical affections, mainly the intra-abdominal ones, than the bimanual abdominal palpation. Also, from this study it was possible to verify that microorganisms isolated from the umbilical structures of calves with infectious omphalopathy were Gram negative, and that Escherichia spp. was the most frequently isolated genus (31.03%). Other bacterial genus also isolated were: Streptococcus spp. (13.8%), Klebsiella spp. (10.34%), and Proteus spp. (10.34%). These isolated bacteria were, in general, resistant to cephalexin, clindamycin, enrofloxacin, benzylpenicillin, tetracycline, trimethoprim / sulfamethoxazole, ampicillin, and oxacillin. Most of the microorganisms isolated from the blood of calves with infectious omphalopathy were Gram positive, and Staphylococcus spp. was the most frequently isolated genus (62.5%). Bacteria isolated from blood were, in general, resistant to fusidic acid, benzylpenicillin, erythromycin, amoxicillin / clavulanic acid, cefpodoxime, ceftiofur, chloramphenicol, nitrofurantoin, and piperacillin.

Thesis (MScAgric)--Stellenbosch University, 2013. / ENGLISH ABSTRACT: Citrus fruit exported from South Africa to markets such as the USA and China undergo a mandatory 24 day exposure of -0.6°C during shipment to kill any insect larvae in the fruit, however, this protocol causes chilling injury (CI). The aim of this study was firstly to determine the influence of various preharvest factors on chilling sensitivity. In addition, Near-Infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was tested as a potential management tool to identify variation in CI susceptibility of fruit and lastly the efficacy of thiabendazole (TBZ) applied in the packline to reduce CI was determined. Various factors influence the susceptibility of a navel orange fruit to CI including cultivar, micro-climate, harvest date, fruit size and rind colour. In this study it was found that ‘Washington’ was more susceptible to CI compared to ‘Navelina’ navel orange. Fruit from the coldest part of Citrusdal (Tharakama) had the highest incidence of CI, which concurred with literature. The incidence of CI was overall less when fruit were harvested in the middle of the commercial harvest window; however, the internal maturity at harvest does not appear to be related to the sensitivity of orange fruit to CI. Near infrared (NIR) spectroscopy was tested as a potential tool to predict fruit quality parameters in relation to CI. Analysing the NIR data with principal components analysis (PCA), score plots were obtained that separate fruit in clusters from the inside and outside of the canopy positions as well as different sizes and rind colours (green vs. orange). However, analysing data with partial least square regression (PLS) using fruit quality parameters (firmness, rind colour and mass), the NIR spectra obtained with the integrated sphere did not provide a good prediction model for CI index. Thiabendazole (TBZ) is reported to reduce the incidence of CI of citrus fruit and this fungicide was applied in a semi-commercial packline in the wax as well as the drench. The results of the application of different fungicides from the TBZ chemical group indicated that the TBZ dip treatments had the highest efficacy in reducing both the incidence and severity of CI and in addition were more effective when applied in warm (40°C) than cold water (10°C). Applications at the commercial recommended rate (20mL.L-1 and half of the commercial recommended rate were both effective in reducing the incidence of CI. Wax application was effective in reducing the incidence of CI however, the application of TBZ in the wax reduced the incidence of CI even more. For the successful reduction of CI incidence in commercial shipments of citrus fruit the focus should not be on a single factor but rather a strategy that encompasses pre-harvest factors that would influence rind quality as well as specific postharvest technologies know to decrease the impact of CI. / AFRIKAANSE OPSOMMING: Sitrus vrugte ondergaan 'n verpligte 24 dae blootstelling aan -0,6°C om moontlike insek-larwes te dood gedurende die uitvoer na markte soos die VSA en China, maar hierdie protokol veroorsaak koueskade. Die doel van hierdie studie was eerstens om die invloed van verskillende voor-oes faktore op koueskade-sensitiwiteit van nawel lemoene te bepaal. Daarbenewens is naby-infrarooi (NIR) spektroskopie as 'n potensiële tegniek getoets om variasie in koueskade-sensitiwiteit van nawel lemoene te identifiseer, en laastens is die effektiwiteit van thiabendazole (TBZ) toediening in die verpakkings lyn, om koueskade te verminder, ondersoek. Verskillende faktore soos kultivar, mikroklimaat, oesdatum, vruggrootte en skilkleur beïnvloed die koueskade-sensitiwiteit van sitrus. Hierdie studie het bevind dat die ‘Washington’ meer sensitief is vir koueskade as die ‘Navelina’ nawels. Vrugte afkomstig uit die koudste deel van Citrusdal (Tharakama) het die hoogste voorkoms van koueskade. In die algemeen was vrugte ge-oes in die middel van die kommersiële-venster die minste koueskade-sensitief, maar interne rypheid hou nie verband met koueskadesensitiwiteit nie. Naby-Infrarooi (NIR) spektroskopie is getoets as 'n potensiële instrument om vrugkwaliteit parameters te voorspel met betrekking tot koueskade. Deur ontleding van die NIR data met behulp van ‘Principal Components Analysis’ kon vrugte groepeer word volgens posisie (binne vs. buite blaredak), groottes en skilkleur. Deur ‘Partial Least Square Regression’ verdere data ontleding en met inagneming van vrugkwaliteit parameters (fermheid, skil kleur en massa), kon die NIR spektra wat verkry was egter nie 'n goeie voorspelling model vir koueskade verskaf nie. TBZ verminder die voorkoms van koueskade van sitrusvrugte na dit toegedien was in 'n semi-kommersiële verpakkingslyn in die waks, ‘drench’ of baddens. Die toediening van verskillende swamdoders van die TBZ chemiese groep in baddens, het aangedui dat die TBZ doop behandeling effektief was om die voorkoms van koueskade te verminder. Daarbenewens was TBZ meer effektief in verlaging van koueskade as dit toegedien word in warm (40°C) as koue (10°C) water, asook teen die volle (20mL.L-1) en die helfte van die aanbevole kommersiële dosis. Wakstoediening was effektief in die vermindering van die voorkoms van koueskade en byvoeging van TBZ in die waks het die effektiwiteit verhoog. Die suksesvolle vermindering van koueskade tydens kommersiële verskeping van sitrusvrugte moet egter nie fokus op 'n enkele faktor nie, maar op 'n strategie wat bestaan uit voor-oes faktore wat die vrugskil kwaliteit beïnvloed, sowel as spesifieke na-oes tegnologieë en hanteringsprotokolle wat bekend is vir die vermindering van koueskade. / Citrus Research International

Dentre as diversas doenças que podem acometer os neonatos bovinos, as onfalopatias destacam-se como sendo uma das mais importantes devido a sua alta incidência e consequentes perdas econômicas. A porção do umbigo que permanece em contato com o meio ambiente contaminado aumenta a exposição do neonato aos microrganismos e as chances de ocorrer uma onfalopatia infecciosa, principalmente quando há falhas no manejo dos bezerros (fornecimento de colostro e cura do umbigo) e de higiene do ambiente em que eles vivem. Os componentes do umbigo representam uma importante porta de entrada para os microrganismos, podendo levar à infecção ascendente, com complicações secundárias, o que aumenta a geração de prejuízos econômicos. Com a finalidade de se evitar tais consequências, a realização da identificação dos microrganismos mais frequentemente encontrados nessa circunstância, assim como o conhecimento do perfil de sensibilidade dos mesmos, faz-se necessária, pois, com eles, é possível se direcionar a antibioticoterapia, minimizando o desenvolvimento de resistência bacteriana, além do tempo e custos do tratamento. Diante da importância dessa enfermidade, da escassez de informações sobre o assunto e da premissa de que o umbigo é uma importante porta de entrada a agentes infecciosos, podendo ocorrer bacteremia e outras complicações, o presente estudo realizou a identificação dos agentes bacterianos isolados a partir da secreção do umbigo e de amostras de sangue de bezerros de até 30 dias de vida com onfalopatia infecciosa. Além disso, verificou a sensibilidade dos microrganismos isolados frente a alguns antimicrobianos e a influência de alguns fatores sobre a presença da enfermidade e características dos isolamentos bacterianos. Foram avaliados 417 bezerros da raça Holandesa, machos ou fêmeas, oriundos de propriedades leiteiras localizadas no interior do Estado de São Paulo, desde a primeira semana até os 30 dias de vida, dos quais, 32 apresentaram onfalopatia infecciosa. Os resultados obtidos evidenciaram influência de alguns fatores do ambiente com a ocorrência de onfalopatias infecciosas e com o tipo de isolamento (único ou misto) encontrado nas amostras de secreção do umbigo; alterações do exame físico em função da coloração de Gram das bactérias encontradas nas amostras de sangue; e características das culturas obtidas em função do local de isolamento das bactérias (umbigo ou sangue) e em função do tipo de isolamento em amostras de secreção do umbigo. Durante o exame físico específico dos componentes umbilicais, foi observado que o exame ultrassonográfico é um recurso semiológico mais acurado na identificação das afecções umbilicais, principalmente as intra-abdominais, do que a palpação abdominal bimanual. Ainda, neste estudo, foi possível verificar que os microrganismos isolados a partir da secreção das estruturas umbilicais de bezerros com onfalopatia infecciosa foram, em sua maioria, Gram negativos, sendo mais frequentemente isolada Escherichia spp. (31,03%). Outras bactérias também foram isoladas, como Streptococcus spp. (13,8%), Klebsiella spp. (10,34%) e Proteus spp. (10,34%). No geral, as bactérias isoladas nas estruturas umbilicais foram resistentes a cefalexina, clindamicina, enrofloxacina, tetraciclina, benzilpenicilina, trimetoprim/sulfametoxazol, ampicilina e oxacilina. Observou-se, ainda, que a maioria dos microrganismos isolados a partir do sangue de bezerros com onfalopatia infecciosa foram Gram positivos, sendo Staphylococcus spp. (62,5%) o gênero mais frequentemente isolado. As bactérias isoladas no sangue foram, em geral, resistentes a ácido fusídico, benzilpenicilina, eritromicina, amoxicilina/ácido clavulânico, cefpodoxima, ceftiofur, cloranfenicol, nitrofurantoína e piperacilina. / Among the several diseases that can affect newborn calves, omphalopathies stand out as the most important due to their high incidence and consequent economic losses. The portion of the navel that remains in contact with the contaminated environment intensifies the neonate\'s exposure to the microorganisms and the chances of infectious omphalopathies occur; especially when there are errors in the management of the calves (colostrum supply and navel care) and in the sanitation of the environment in which they live. The components of the umbilicus represent an important entryway for microorganisms, which can lead to ascending infection with secondary complications, which increases the production of economic losses. In order to avoid such consequences, the identification of the most frequently found microorganisms in these circumstances, as well as the knowledge of their sensitivity profile, are required. Consequently, it is possible to target antibiotic therapy, minimizing both the development of bacterial resistance, and time and treatment costs. Given the importance of this disease, the scarcity of information on the subject, and the premise that the navel is an important entryway to infectious agents, leading to bacteremia and other complications, the present study isolated and identified the bacterial agents from the navel secretion and from blood samples of calves up to 30 days old with infectious omphalopathy; as well as verified the sensitivity of the microorganisms isolated against some antimicrobials, the influence of some factors on the presence of the disease, and characteristics of the bacterial isolates. We evaluated 417 male and female Holstein calves, raised in dairy farms placed in the State of Sao Paulo, from the first week up to 30 days of life. Thirty-two of the evaluated calves had infectious omphalopathy. Results evidenced the influence of some environmental factors on the occurrence of infectious omphalopathies and the type of isolation (single or mixed) found in the samples of navel secretion; the alterations found on physical examination along with the Gram staining of the bacteria found in the blood samples; and the characteristics of the cultures obtained along with the site of isolation of the bacteria (navel or blood) and the type of isolation in samples of navel secretion. During the specific examination of the umbilical components, it was observed that the ultrasonographic exam is a more accurate semiological resource in the identification of umbilical affections, mainly the intra-abdominal ones, than the bimanual abdominal palpation. Also, from this study it was possible to verify that microorganisms isolated from the umbilical structures of calves with infectious omphalopathy were Gram negative, and that Escherichia spp. was the most frequently isolated genus (31.03%). Other bacterial genus also isolated were: Streptococcus spp. (13.8%), Klebsiella spp. (10.34%), and Proteus spp. (10.34%). These isolated bacteria were, in general, resistant to cephalexin, clindamycin, enrofloxacin, benzylpenicillin, tetracycline, trimethoprim / sulfamethoxazole, ampicillin, and oxacillin. Most of the microorganisms isolated from the blood of calves with infectious omphalopathy were Gram positive, and Staphylococcus spp. was the most frequently isolated genus (62.5%). Bacteria isolated from blood were, in general, resistant to fusidic acid, benzylpenicillin, erythromycin, amoxicillin / clavulanic acid, cefpodoxime, ceftiofur, chloramphenicol, nitrofurantoin, and piperacillin.

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ABSTRACT Effects of Compost, Legume Cover Cropping and Vermicompost Extract Foliar Applications on Nutrition and Yield of Washington Navel Oranges William Payton Carling An experiment was conducted to test the effects of four treatments on Washington navel orange (Citrus sinensis) trees in regards to nutrient content of the leaves and fruit, soil nutrient content and properties, and fruit yield. The four treatments included: compost (C) and vermicompost extract foliar (VEF) applications, legume cover cropping (LCC) and VEF applications, VEF applications, and a control. The treatments were implemented from February 2010 to April 2011 and sampling occurred in May 2011. Fruit Growers Laboratory, Inc. (FGL) conducted the soil, leaf, and fruit analyses. The test site was located in San Isidro, Baja California Sur, Mexico. The compost used was made onsite with livestock manure, carbon-based farm waste, and water, and applied around the drip-lines of 8 WNO trees once every two months. The vermicompost and vermicompost extract was made onsite by introducing red wiggler worms (Eisenia fetida) into horse manure, allowing 1 month for casting content to build up, and collecting the extract as water was filtered through the material. Vermicompost extract was applied using a backpack foliar sprayer on 8 WNO trees twice a month. The legume cover crop treatment consisted of two plantings at a rate of approximately 72 seeds per square foot around the drip-lines of 8 WNO trees. Black-eyed peas (Vigna unguiclata) were planted in April 2010 and minimally incorporated using a hoe and shovel in August 2010. Fababeans (Vicia faba) and dry peas (Pisum sativum) were planted in January 2011 and minimally incorporated into the soil in March 2011. WNO leaf and soil analyses were compared to FGL optimum ranges. The C+VEF treatment showed trends of increased soil and leaf nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium, calcium, zinc, and copper levels and improved soil properties by raising soil organic matter percentage, saturation percentage, and moisture percentage. The control treatment had low or deficient values in these nutrients and soil properties. The LCC+VEF treatment increased nitrogen in the soil and leaf content but decreased organic matter percentage. The VEF treatment increased nitrogen and potassium content in the leaf but increased sodium beyond FGL optimum range. The C+VEF treatment had the highest yield and the greatest amount of nutrients removed as a result of yield. The C+VEF treatment had more available nutrients in the soil for WNO tree uptake and future crops.

Bairros não são mais que linhas no papel. Mas linhas plenas de significados que contêm, sobre o arcabouço físico-geográfico, diversas matrizes sócio-econômicas e histórico-culturais que os fazem únicos. Ainda mais esses dois conjuntos de bairros estudos de caso desta pesquisa, tão significativos recortes espaciais da Cidade do Recife, que ora até se confundem com a própria essência da Cidade, num sentido não só de identidade íntegra e plena, mas de complementaridade e solidariedade. Limites abstratos num sentido, concretíssimos em outro, cuja discussão extrapola, e muito, o âmbito de uma tese. Sempre tema da ordem do dia no planejamento urbano atual, o bairro antes de tudo é a escala do cotidiano, do (re) conhecimento do cidadão perante o espaço que habita. A definição de bairro e as questões que o definem e limitam correspondem ao eixo central deste estudo. / Districts no are more than lines in a paper. But lines full of meanings, which have at the physicgeographycal support many social-economical and historic-cultural nuances, that make them unicals. Moreover these two sets of neighborhoods that are case studies in this research, as significant special profiles of Recife, which even confused with the very essence of the city, a sense of identity not only full of complementarity and solidarity. Abstract limits in a sense, concrete in another, whose discussion goes beyond the scope and much of the argument of a thesis, always subject on the agenda in the current urban planning, the district first and foremost is the scale of everyday life, recognition of citizen´s living space. The definition of a neighborhood and the issues which defines it correspond to the central axis of this research.

Muitas plantas apresentam crescimento indeterminado e são capazes de produzir novos órgãos e tecidos ao longo de todo seu ciclo de vida. Essa capacidade é devida parcialmente à expressão altamente regulada de genes específicos, tais como os genes SQUAMOSA Promoter-Binding Protein-Like (SPLs). SPLs codificam fatores de transcrição específicos de plantas que desempenham papéis importantes em diferentes aspectos do desenvolvimento, tais como mudança de fase juvenil-adulto, definição da arquitetura da planta e amadurecimento do fruto. A maioria dos genes SPLs são pós-transcricionalmente regulados pelo microRNA (miRNA) miR156. Apesar de alguns aspectos regulados pelas SPLs serem bem estudados, suas funções moleculares durante o desenvolvimento do fruto são pouco compreendidas. Neste trabalho, nós geramos 22 eventos transgênicos de Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom (MT) superexpressando o precursor AtMIR156b. Plantas transgênicas exibiram morfologia foliar e floral anormal além de alteração na arquitetura vegetal. Interessantemente, a maioria dos eventos apresentou frutos de crescimento indeterminado, os quais não apresentam sementes sendo caracterizados pelo crescimento de frutos secundários além da presença de estruturas vegetativas e meristemas florais ectópicos. Fazendo uso da técnica de RT-qPCR, nós encontramos uma robusta correlação entre expressão do miR156 e o fenótipo dos frutos, sugerindo que esta rota regula o desenvolvimento e determinação do fruto de tomateiro. O mutante de tomateiro Mouse ears (Me) apresenta um fraco nível de indeterminação no fruto, sendo que os níveis do transcrito miR156 maduro são maiores no fruto mutante quando comparado aos controles MT, mas significativamente menores que nos frutos transgênicos. Oito SPLs de tomateiro foram silenciadas em diferentes níveis em frutos de diferentes eventos transgênicos e no mutante Me. O fator de transcrição do tipo MADS-box MACROCALYX (MC), o qual é ortólogo ao gene APETALA1 (AP1) de arabidopsis (alvo direto in vivo da proteína SPL3), afeta a determinação da inflorescência e o desenvolvimento das sépalas. A expressão de MC foi severamente reduzida nos frutos dos eventos transgênicos, mas não no mutante Me. Este dado sugere que a desregulação da expressão de MC deve ser responsável pelo forte fenótipo de indeterminação do fruto observados nos eventos transgênicos. Tomados em conjunto, nossos dados sugerem uma nova função para a via genética mir156/SPL na regulação do desenvolvimento e determinação de frutos carnosos, provavelmente através da regulação da expressão de MC. / Many plants have indeterminate growth and are capable of producing new organs and tissues throughout their life. This capability is partially due to the highly regulated expression of specific genes such as SQUAMOSA Promoter-Binding Protein-Like (SPL) genes. SPLs encode plant-specific transcription factors that play important roles in development, such as phase transition, plant architecture, and fruit ripening. Most SPL genes are post-transcriptionally regulated by the microRNA (miRNA) miR156. Although some developmental aspects regulated by SPLs have been well studied, their molecular roles during fruit development are poorly understood. In this work, we generated 22 transgenic events of Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom (MT) overexpressing AtMIR156b precursor. Transgenic plants exhibit abnormal leaf and flower morphology and altered vegetative architecture. Interestingly, most events display navel-like fruits that are seedless and characterized by the growth of secondary fruits and present leaf-like structures as well as ectopic flowering meristems. By using RT-qPCR, we found a robust correlation between miR156/SPL expression and the fruit phenotype, suggesting that this pathway regulates tomato fruit development and determinacy. The tomato mutant Mouse ears (Me) displays a weak level of fruit indeterminacy. Levels of mature miR156 transcripts are higher in fruits from the mutant as comparing to MT fruits, but significantly lower than in transgenic fruits. Eight tomato SPLs were downregulated at variable levels in fruits from distinct transgenic events and Me plants. The MADS-type of transcription factor Macrocalyx (MC) gene is an orthologue of Arabidopsis AP1 (a direct in vivo target of SPL3) and affects tomato inflorescence determinacy and sepal development. MC was severely downregulated in fruits from transgenics but not in fruits from Me mutant. This data suggests that the MC misregulation may lead to the strong fruit indeterminacy phenotype observed in the transgenic events. Taken together, our data suggest a new function for miR156/SPL pathway in regulating fruit development and determinacy likely through the regulation of MC expression.

Muitas plantas apresentam crescimento indeterminado e são capazes de produzir novos órgãos e tecidos ao longo de todo seu ciclo de vida. Essa capacidade é devida parcialmente à expressão altamente regulada de genes específicos, tais como os genes SQUAMOSA Promoter-Binding Protein-Like (SPLs). SPLs codificam fatores de transcrição específicos de plantas que desempenham papéis importantes em diferentes aspectos do desenvolvimento, tais como mudança de fase juvenil-adulto, definição da arquitetura da planta e amadurecimento do fruto. A maioria dos genes SPLs são pós-transcricionalmente regulados pelo microRNA (miRNA) miR156. Apesar de alguns aspectos regulados pelas SPLs serem bem estudados, suas funções moleculares durante o desenvolvimento do fruto são pouco compreendidas. Neste trabalho, nós geramos 22 eventos transgênicos de Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom (MT) superexpressando o precursor AtMIR156b. Plantas transgênicas exibiram morfologia foliar e floral anormal além de alteração na arquitetura vegetal. Interessantemente, a maioria dos eventos apresentou frutos de crescimento indeterminado, os quais não apresentam sementes sendo caracterizados pelo crescimento de frutos secundários além da presença de estruturas vegetativas e meristemas florais ectópicos. Fazendo uso da técnica de RT-qPCR, nós encontramos uma robusta correlação entre expressão do miR156 e o fenótipo dos frutos, sugerindo que esta rota regula o desenvolvimento e determinação do fruto de tomateiro. O mutante de tomateiro Mouse ears (Me) apresenta um fraco nível de indeterminação no fruto, sendo que os níveis do transcrito miR156 maduro são maiores no fruto mutante quando comparado aos controles MT, mas significativamente menores que nos frutos transgênicos. Oito SPLs de tomateiro foram silenciadas em diferentes níveis em frutos de diferentes eventos transgênicos e no mutante Me. O fator de transcrição do tipo MADS-box MACROCALYX (MC), o qual é ortólogo ao gene APETALA1 (AP1) de arabidopsis (alvo direto in vivo da proteína SPL3), afeta a determinação da inflorescência e o desenvolvimento das sépalas. A expressão de MC foi severamente reduzida nos frutos dos eventos transgênicos, mas não no mutante Me. Este dado sugere que a desregulação da expressão de MC deve ser responsável pelo forte fenótipo de indeterminação do fruto observados nos eventos transgênicos. Tomados em conjunto, nossos dados sugerem uma nova função para a via genética mir156/SPL na regulação do desenvolvimento e determinação de frutos carnosos, provavelmente através da regulação da expressão de MC. / Many plants have indeterminate growth and are capable of producing new organs and tissues throughout their life. This capability is partially due to the highly regulated expression of specific genes such as SQUAMOSA Promoter-Binding Protein-Like (SPL) genes. SPLs encode plant-specific transcription factors that play important roles in development, such as phase transition, plant architecture, and fruit ripening. Most SPL genes are post-transcriptionally regulated by the microRNA (miRNA) miR156. Although some developmental aspects regulated by SPLs have been well studied, their molecular roles during fruit development are poorly understood. In this work, we generated 22 transgenic events of Solanum lycopersicum cv. Micro-Tom (MT) overexpressing AtMIR156b precursor. Transgenic plants exhibit abnormal leaf and flower morphology and altered vegetative architecture. Interestingly, most events display navel-like fruits that are seedless and characterized by the growth of secondary fruits and present leaf-like structures as well as ectopic flowering meristems. By using RT-qPCR, we found a robust correlation between miR156/SPL expression and the fruit phenotype, suggesting that this pathway regulates tomato fruit development and determinacy. The tomato mutant Mouse ears (Me) displays a weak level of fruit indeterminacy. Levels of mature miR156 transcripts are higher in fruits from the mutant as comparing to MT fruits, but significantly lower than in transgenic fruits. Eight tomato SPLs were downregulated at variable levels in fruits from distinct transgenic events and Me plants. The MADS-type of transcription factor Macrocalyx (MC) gene is an orthologue of Arabidopsis AP1 (a direct in vivo target of SPL3) and affects tomato inflorescence determinacy and sepal development. MC was severely downregulated in fruits from transgenics but not in fruits from Me mutant. This data suggests that the MC misregulation may lead to the strong fruit indeterminacy phenotype observed in the transgenic events. Taken together, our data suggest a new function for miR156/SPL pathway in regulating fruit development and determinacy likely through the regulation of MC expression.

Bairros não são mais que linhas no papel. Mas linhas plenas de significados que contêm, sobre o arcabouço físico-geográfico, diversas matrizes sócio-econômicas e histórico-culturais que os fazem únicos. Ainda mais esses dois conjuntos de bairros estudos de caso desta pesquisa, tão significativos recortes espaciais da Cidade do Recife, que ora até se confundem com a própria essência da Cidade, num sentido não só de identidade íntegra e plena, mas de complementaridade e solidariedade. Limites abstratos num sentido, concretíssimos em outro, cuja discussão extrapola, e muito, o âmbito de uma tese. Sempre tema da ordem do dia no planejamento urbano atual, o bairro antes de tudo é a escala do cotidiano, do (re) conhecimento do cidadão perante o espaço que habita. A definição de bairro e as questões que o definem e limitam correspondem ao eixo central deste estudo. / Districts no are more than lines in a paper. But lines full of meanings, which have at the physicgeographycal support many social-economical and historic-cultural nuances, that make them unicals. Moreover these two sets of neighborhoods that are case studies in this research, as significant special profiles of Recife, which even confused with the very essence of the city, a sense of identity not only full of complementarity and solidarity. Abstract limits in a sense, concrete in another, whose discussion goes beyond the scope and much of the argument of a thesis, always subject on the agenda in the current urban planning, the district first and foremost is the scale of everyday life, recognition of citizen´s living space. The definition of a neighborhood and the issues which defines it correspond to the central axis of this research.