Made available in DSpace on 2014-12-17T14:54:58Z (GMT). No. of bitstreams: 1 DaviBB_DISSERT_1-70.pdf: 4567680 bytes, checksum: 150ff5afc1806ca374278b4c00a1f5a3 (MD5) Previous issue date: 2010-12-06 / Coordena??o de Aperfei?oamento de Pessoal de N?vel Superior / Metamaterials exhibiting negative refraction have attracted a great amount of attention in recent years mostly due to their exquisite electromagnetic properties. These materials are artificial structures that exhibit characteristics not found in nature. It is possible to obtain a metamaterial by combining artificial structures periodically. We investigated the unique properties of Split Ring Resonators, High impedance Surfaces and Frequency Selective Surfaces and composite metamaterials. We have successfully demonstrated the practical use of these structures in antennas and circuits. We experimentally confirmed that composite metamaterial can improve the performance of the structures considered in this thesis, at the frequencies where electromagnetic band gap transmission takes place

Arrays of free-standing metallic nanorods are promising candidates for sensors, switches and spectroscopy. They have structure sizes much smaller than the wavelength of visible light, feature a long-axis surface plasmonic resonance (LSPR) and show metamaterial-like properties. This thesis provides a detailed investigation of their linear optical properties and highlights some nonlinear optical aspects. By means of graded structures having a tunable LSPR and three different theoretical models -- a numerical multiple-multipole method (MMP) model, a semi-analytic collective surface plasmon (CSP) model and an analytic dipolar interaction model (DIM) -- the optical properties were analyzed. Using the DIM, the experimentally observed blueshift of the LSPR in comparison to a single nanorod is confirmed and a physical explanation is provided. The LSPR strongly depends on the angle of incidence and the rod diameter. However, for a varying length the changes are small with the long-axis mode showing a lower energy limit. The detailed arrangement of the nanorods and the azimuthal angle of the incoming light plays only a minor role for small nanorod separations. Similarly, the dependence on the metal is the same as for single particles, whereas the sensitivity to the surrounding dielectric is much stronger than in the single-particle case. For longer nanorods made of silver, angle-dependent higher-order modes are observed and reproduced using MMP. The CSP model is applied and Fabry-Pérot-like oscillations of the CSPs are found. The propagating nature of these modes leads to the discovery that the p component of the transmitted light experiences a phase jump and to the observation of polarization conversion inside the structures. Negative refraction is found in nanorod arrays; it is revealed that a negative energy flux occurs only within a bandwidth given by the LSPR of a single nanorod and the array resonance. For smaller wavelengths, the in-plane component of the Poynting vector reverses, leading to an (extraordinary) positive flux. At the LSPR itself, the flux parallel to the surface is found to be zero. The negative refraction is also exploited to mimic a nanolens with structure parameters that are infact technical realizable. In the visible regime the nanolens shows a NA of 1.06 and superlens-like features such as identical rotation and linear translation of image and object. The nonlinear measurements on graded structures are conducted using femtosecond pump-probe spectroscopy resulting in kinetics showing either an increased transmission or absorption with signal changes of up to 40%. By converting them to transient spectra and by comparison with the literature, electron distribution changes at the Fermi edge and hot electrons/phonons are identified as the main reasons for the changes. Probing at the inflection points of the LSPR reveals ultrafast signals. Using transient spectra they are traced back to a short blueshift of the LSPR. / Strukturen aus frei stehenden metallischen Nanostäbchen versprechen interessante An­wendungen als Sensoren, Schalter und in der Spektroskopie. Da ihre Strukturgrößen kleiner als die Wellenlänge des sichtbaren Lichtes sind, besitzen sie eine langachsige Oberflächen­plasmonenresonanz (LSPR) und weisen metamaterialartige Eigenschaften auf. In dieser Dissertation werden die linearen und nichtlinearen optischen Eigenschaften solcher Struk­turen im Detail untersucht. Mit Hilfe von Gradientenstrukturen, die eine durchstimmbare LSPR besitzen, und dreier theoretischer Modelle – eines numerischen Modells basierend auf der Methode der mul­tiplen Multipole (MMP), eines semianalytischen Modells kollektiver Oberflächenplasmonen (CSP) sowie eines analytischen dipolaren Interaktionsmodells (DIMs) – werden die op­tischen Eigenschaften analysiert. Unter Verwendung des DIMs wird die experimentell beobachtete Blauverschiebung der LSPR im Vergleich zur Resonanz eines Einzelstäbchens bestätigt und eine physikalische Erklärung dafür geliefert. Die LSPR ist stark vom Einfallswinkel und vom Stäbchendurch­messer abhängig. Im Unterschied dazu sind die Änderungen bei einer Längenvariation klein, wobei die langachsige Mode ein unteres Energielimit aufweist. Weiterhin haben die genaue Anordnung der Stäbchen und der azimutale Winkel des einfallenden Lichtes nur einen untergeordneten Einfluss. Die Abhängigkeit vom verwendeten Metall ist analog zu einem Einzelstäbchen, während die Empfindlichkeit in Bezug auf das Umgebungsmedium wesentlich stärker ist. Längere Nanostäbchen aus Silber zeigen winkelabhängige Moden höherer Ordnung, welche mittels MMP reproduziert werden können. Das CSP-Modell wird ebenfalls darauf ange­wendet, wobei Fabry-Pérot-artige Oszillationen der CSPs entdeckt werden. Die propa­gierende Natur der CSPs führt zur Entdeckung eines Phasensprungs der p‑Komponente des transmittierten Lichtes sowie zur Beobachtung von Polarisationskonversion in den Strukturen. Nanostäbchen-Arrays weisen außerdem negative Brechung auf. Es wird gezeigt, dass ein negativer Energiefluss nur in dem Wellenlängenbereich zwischen der LSPR der Einzelstäb­chen und der Arrayresonanz auftritt. Für kleinere Wellenlängen kehrt sich die in der Ebene befindende Poynting-Vektor-Komponente um, was zu einer (außerordentlichen) positiven Brechung führt. An der LSPR selbst ist der zur Strukturebene parallele Fluss Null. Die negative Brechung wird ferner ausgenutzt, um eine Nanolinse mit realistischen Struktur­parametern zu simulieren. Im sichtbaren Bereich zeigt sie eine NA von 1,06 und super­linsenartige Eigenschaften, wie eine identische Rotation und eine lineare Translation von Bild und Objekt. Die nichtlinearen Messungen an Gradientenstrukturen werden mittels Femtosekunden-Pump-Probe-Spektroskopie durchgeführt und liefern Kinetiken, welche entweder eine ver­stärkte Transmission oder eine verstärkte Absorption mit Signalstärken von bis zu 40% aufweisen. Durch Konvertierung in transiente Spektren und Vergleich mit der Literatur werden eine veränderte Elektronverteilung an der Fermi-Kante und heiße Elektronen/Pho­nonen als Ursache für die Änderungen gefunden. Das Abtasten mit dem Probe-Puls an den Wendepunkten der Resonanz offenbart ultraschnelle Signale. Mit Hilfe der transienten Spektren wird dies auf eine kurzzeitige Blauverschiebung der LSPR zurückgeführt.

The static and dynamic response of lattice materials is investigated to disclose and control the connection between microstructure and effective behavior. The analytical methods developed in the thesis aim at providing a new understanding of material instabilities and strain localizations as well as effective tools for controlling wave propagation in lattice structures. The time-harmonic dynamics of arbitrary beam lattices, deforming flexurally and axially in a plane, is formulated analytically to analyze the influence of the mechanical parameters on the dispersion properties of the spectrum of Floquet-Bloch waves. Several forms of dynamic localizations are shown to occur for in-plane wave propagation of grid-like elastic lattices. It is demonstrated that lattices of rods, despite being `simple' structures, can exhibit a completely different channeled response depending on the characteristics of the forcing source (i.e. frequency and direction) as well as on the slenderness of the elastic links. It is also shown how the lattice parameters can be tuned to attain specific dispersion properties, such as flat bands and sharp Dirac cones. In the research field of material instabilities, a key result proposed in this thesis is the development of both static and dynamic homogenization methods capable of accounting for second-order effects in the macroscopic response of prestressed lattices. These methods, the former based on an incremental strain-energy equivalence and the latter based on the asymptotic analysis of lattice waves, allow the identification of the incremental constitutive operator capturing the macroscopic incremental response of arbitrary lattice configurations. The homogenization framework has allowed the systematic analysis of prestress-induced phenomena on the incremental response of both the lattice structure and its `effective' elastic solid, which in turn has enabled the identification of the complex interplay between microstructure, prestress, loss of ellipticity (shear band formation) and short-wavelength bifurcations. Potential new applications for the control of wave propagation are also shown to be possible by leveraging the inclusion of second-order terms in the incremental dynamics. In particular, the tunability of the prestress state in a square lattice structure has been exploited to obtain dynamic interfaces with designable transmission properties. The interface can be introduced in a material domain by selectively prestressing the desired set of ligaments and the prestress level can be tuned to achieve total reflection, negative refraction, and wave channeling. The obtained results open new possibilities for the realization of engineered materials endowed with a desired constitutive response, as well as to enable the identification of novel dynamic material instabilities.

No description available.

The goal of this project is to study novel nanoscale excitation volumes, sensitive enoughto study individual chromophores and go on to study new and exciting self assemblyapproaches to this problem. Small excitation volumes may be engineered using light con-finement inside apertures in metal films. These apertures enhance fluorescence emissionrates, quantum yields, decrease fluorescence quenching, enable higher signal-to-noiseratios and allow higher concentration single chromophore fluorescence, to be studied byrestricting this excitation volume. Excitation volumes are reported on using the chro-mophore's fluorescence by utilising fluorescence correlation spectroscopy, which monitorsfluctuations in fluorescence intensity. From the correlation in time, we can find the res-idence time, the number of chromophores, the volume in which they are diffusing andtherefore the fluorescence emission efficiency. Fluorescence properties are a probe ofthe local environment, a particularly powerful tool due to the high brightness (quantumyield) fluorescent dyes and sensitive photo-detection equipment both of which are readilyavailable, (such as avalanche photodiodes and photomultiplier tubes). Novel materialscombining the properties of conducting and non-conducting materials at scales muchsmaller than the incident wavelength are known as meta-materials. These allow combi-nations of properties not usually possible in natural materials at optical frequencies. Theproperties reported so far include; negative refraction, negative phase velocity, fluorescenceemission enhancement, lensing and therefore light confinement has also been proposed tobe possible. Instead of expensive and slow lithography methods many of these materialsmay be fabricated with self assembly techniques, which are truly nanoscopic and otherwiseinaccessible with even the most sophisticated equipment. It was found that nanoscaled volumes from ZMW and HMMs based on NW arrays wereall inefficient at enhancing fluorescence. The primary cause was the reduced fluorescencelifetime reducing the fluorescence efficiency, which runs contrary to some commentatorsin the literature. NW based lensing was found to possible in the blue region of the opticalspectrum in a HMM, without the background fluorescence normally associated with a PAAtemplate. This was achieved using a pseudo-ordered array of relatively large nanowireswith a period just smaller than lambda / 2 which minimised losses. Nanowires in the traditionalregime lambda / 10 produced significant scattering and lead to diffraction, such that they werewholly unsuitable for an optical lensing application.

Ce manuscrit s'inscrit dans le contexte du contrôle de la propagation des plasmons de surface. A cet effet, des nanostructures diélectriques et métalliques ont été conçues et caractérisées par microscopie à champ de fuite dans les espaces réels et réciproques. La manipulation des plasmons de surface à l'aide de lentilles diélectriques et d' éléments à gradient d'indice est présentée, et la réfraction négative, la direction et l'auto-collimation des plasmons de surface dans des cristaux plasmoniques à une ou deux dimensions sont démontrées. Ces résultats ont été utilisés pour le guidage de nanoparticules à l'aide de forces optiques, ainsi que pour deux méthodes permettant de renforcer le facteur de mérite de sondes plasmoniques de variation d'indice de réfraction, basées l' une sur les résonances de Fano naturelles de la microscopie à champ de fuite, et pour la seconde sur les structures des bandes plasmoniques anisotropes. / In this thesis devices for controlling the flow of surface plasmon polaritons are described. Dielectric and metallic nanostructures were designed for this purpose, and characterized by leakage radiation microscopy in real and in reciprocal spaces. Manipulation of surface plasmons by dielectric lenses and gradient index elements is presented, and negative refraction, steering and self-collimation of surface plasmons in one- and two-dimensional plasmonic crystals is demonstrated. The achieved degree of control was applied for routing of nanoparticles by optical forces, as well as for two methods of enhancing the figures of merit of plasmonic refractive index sensors, based on the one hand on Fano resonances natural to leakage radiation microscopy, and on the other hand on anisotropie plasmonic bandstructures.

La plasmonique vise à utiliser des nanostructures métalliques très petites devant la longueur d’onde pour manipuler la lumière. Les structures métalliques sont particulières parce qu’elles contiennent un plasma d’électrons libres qui conditionne complètement leur réponse optique. Notamment, lorsque la lumière se propage à proximité des métaux, sous forme de mode guidés comme les plasmons et les gap-palsmons, elle est souvent lente, présentant une vitesse de groupe faible. Dans ce travail, nous présentons une analyse physique qui permet de comprendre cette faible vitesse en considérant le fait que l’énergie se déplace à l’opposé de la lumière dans les métaux. Nous montrons que la vitesse de groupe est égale à la vitesse de l’énergie pour ces modes guidés, et proposons la notion de ralentissement plasmonique. Finalement, nous étudions comment cette « trainée plasmonique » rend une structure aussi simple qu’un coupleur à prisme sensible à la répulsion entre les électrons du plasma. / The field of plasmonics aims at manipulating light using deeply subwavelength nanostructures. Such structures present a peculiar optical response because of the free electron plasma they contain. Actually, when light propagates in the vicinity of metals, usually under the form of a guided mode, it presents a low group velocity. Such modes, like plasmons and gap-plasmons, are said to be slow. In this work we present a general physical analysis of this phenomenon by studying how the energy propagates in metals in a direction that is opposite to the propagation direction of the mode. We show that the group velocity and the energy velocity are the same, and finally introduce the concept of plasmonic drag. Finally, we study how slow guided modes make structures as simple as prism couplers sensitive to the repulsion between electrons inside the plasma.