Les composés organiques semi volatils (COSV) sont largement présents dans les environnements intérieurs et sont suspectés d’être repro- ou neurotoxiques, mais peu de données sont disponibles quant à leur toxicité en mélanges. L’objectif de cette thèse est de proposer des indicateurs de toxicité cumulés pour les COSV détectés dans les logements français, dans un cadre d’évaluation des risques sanitaires cumulés. Les COSV ont été regroupés en fonction de leurs modes d’action communs, en lien avec les effets reprotoxiques (diminution de la concentration de testostérone sérique) et neurotoxiques (diminution de la viabilité neuronale). Des benchmark doses (BMD) ont ensuite été estimées par modélisation (modèle de Hill, PROAST, RIVM) des relations dose-réponse de la littérature décrivant la réponse d’intérêt. Des BMD comparables ont pu être estimées seulement pour 6 des 19 COSV reprotoxiques induisant une diminution de testostérone de 10 ou 50 % chez le rat adulte exposé par voie orale. Les facteurs de toxicité relatifs (RPF) estimés à partir des BMD sont sensiblement les mêmes en fonction du niveau de réponse (de 1600 pour le B(a)P à 0,1 pour le BBP), excepté pour le biphénol A qui passe de 7E+6 à 180. Considérant la mort neuronale in vitro, des BMD ont pu être estimées pour 13 COSV neurotoxiques, à partir de données provenant de différentes lignées et espèces. Les BMD équivalent à un niveau de réponse de 10 % s’échelonnent de 0,07 (PCB-153) à 95 µM (diazinon). L’originalité de ce travail repose sur le regroupement de composés de familles chimiques différentes qui constituent des contaminations réelles de notre environnement. Si l’estimation des quelques BMD a été possible à partir des données de la littérature, de nombreuses limites méthodologiques conduisent à émettre des recommandations en particulier sur la standardisation des protocoles expérimentaux et la disponibilité des résultats sous une forme adaptée à la modélisation de la relation dose-réponse. / Semi-volatile organic compounds (SVOCs) are widely present in indoor environments and are suspected to be repro- or neurotoxic but little is known on the health impact on SVOC mixtures. The objective of this work is to derive cumulative toxicity indicators for SVOCs detected in French dwellings in carrying forward a cumulative health risk assessment. SVOCs were grouped according to their repro- and neurotoxic common modes of action (i.e. decrease in serum testosterone concentrations, decrease in neuronal viability). Benchmark doses (BMDs) were then estimated by modeling dose-response relationships from scientific literature (Hill models, PROAST, RIVM). Comparable BMDs were estimated only for 6 of the 19 reprotoxic SVOCs which are responsible to 10 or 50% decrease in testosterone in adult male rats orally exposed. Estimated relative potency factors (RPFs) from BMDs are similar according to the response level (from 1600 for the B(a)P to 0.1 for the BBP), excepted for bisphenol A moving from 7E+6 to 180. For in vitro neuronal death, BMDs were estimated for 13 neurotoxic SVOCs using data from different cell lines and species. BMDs equivalent to a 10% of response range from 0.07 (PCB-153) to 95 µM (diazinon). The originality of this work is the grouping of compounds from different chemical families which we are really exposed to. BMDs estimation from published data was possible but many methodological limitations lead us to put forward recommendations especially on the standardization of experimental protocols and the availability of results in adapted format for dose-response relationship modeling.

Endocrine-disrupting chemicals (EDCs) are known to cause endocrine disruption (ED), developmental neurotoxicity (DNT), infertility and impaired embryo development. EDCs do therefore impose a threat to humans, wildlife and the environment. The present study investigated the effects of the reference compounds dihydrotestosterone, estradiol, benzo(a)pyrene, rosiglitazone, as well as the EDCs bisphenol F and perfluorooctanesulfonic acid at various concentrations on zebrafish embryos. The scientific questions of the study were to investigate how these environmental pollutants impact the development of zebrafish, what their molecular mechanisms are and what the link between ED and DNT is. Zebrafish embryos were exposed for 5 days to the compounds and various parameters on development were collected at different time points. The expression of 41 genes (qPCR) related to ED and DNT, and the levels of 23 steroids (LC-MS/MS) were determined. Gene correlations were determined with Pearson’s correlation test and paired t-tests were used to determine significantly altered gene activities. The significant gene expression changes were further related to the pathways of steroids in order to connect how gene activity impacted steroid levels. Exposure to estradiol, dihydrotestosterone and bisphenol F induced cyp19a1b expression which can affect personality traits. Perfluorooctanesulfonic acid interferes with thyroid hormone transport by binding to TTR causing profound effects on neurodevelopmental processes and cognitive functions. The compounds influenced genes that can disrupt endocrine systems which can cause neurodevelopmental impairments.

In recent times, endocrine disrupting chemicals (EDCs) have been associated with the rise in neurodevelopmental disorders such as autism, attention deficit hyperactivity disorder (ADHD) and decreased intelligence quotient (IQ) in children. This effect is suspected to be induced at pre-/peri-natal development, via an alteration in hormonal signaling, thus interfering with neuronal differentiation, with subsequent effect on normal brain development and function in exposed children. This issue increases the need for chemical screening for potential developmental neurotoxicity (DNT) effect. The current available EDC induced DNT test guideline is based on in-vivo testing that requires animal use. Here, a multipotent neural progenitor cell line, the C17.2 cell-line, generated from neural stem cells of the external germinal layer of mouse cerebellum, with potential to differentiate to neurons or astrocytes, is introduced for in-vitro EDC induced DNT testing. This project focused on optimizing the C17.2 cell-line for the detection of EDC-induced DNT with emphasis on the disruption of the oestrogen, androgen, and thyroid hormone systems. It aimed at validating the involvement of oestrogen, androgen, and thyroid hormone on molecular and cellular endpoints relevant for the differentiation of the C17.2 cells.  Herein, the cells were exposed to the hormonal agonist and antagonist at a range of concentrations for a 10-day differentiation period. After exposure, LDH, viability assay and morphological changes (percentage of neurons in culture and neurite outgrowth) were evaluated. The results showed no morphological changes induced by androgen receptor (AR) agonist/antagonist at relevant physiological concentrations. The thyroid receptor (TR) agonist and antagonist on the other hand showed a response in the form of increased neurite outgrowth in relation to the negative control at a concentration range of 40-200 nM and 40 nM respectively. The oestrogen receptor (ER) antagonist at 100 nM also increased percentage neuron in culture. Additionally, in-silico analysis of microarray and RNA sequencing data were used to map out target genes regulated by ER, AR and TR and involved in neurodevelopment. With this approach, 29 marker genes were identified. Validation of the marker genes by means of gene expression (qPCR) was carried out, ER and TR agonist/antagonist were observed to modulate the expression of examined genes. In summary, the model could not be established for detecting EDC induced DNT via androgenic and oestrogenic pathway, while it is a promising model for identifying DNT induced by thyroid hormone signalling disruption.

<p dir="ltr">Manganese (Mn) is an essential trace element for humans that functions primarily as a coenzyme in several biological processes such as nerve and brain development, energy metabolism, bone growth and development, as well as cognitive functioning. However, overexposure to environmental Mn via occupational settings or contaminated drinking water can lead to toxic effects on the central nervous systems and cause a Parkinsonian disorder that features symptoms such as fine motor control deficits, dystonia rigidity, speech and mood disturbances, and cognitive deficits summarized under the term “manganism”. Over time, Mn exposure has shifted from acute, high-level instances leading to manganism, to low-level chronic exposure. Considering that Mn exposure is significantly lower than in the past, it is unlikely to expect manganism from chronic Mn exposure under current working conditions. Therefore, there is a need to develop sensitive methods to aid in updating the clinical diagnostic standards for manganism and Mn neurotoxicity as chronic exposure to Mn leads to more subtle symptoms.</p><p><br></p><p dir="ltr">Historically, magnetic resonance imaging (MRI) has been used as a non-invasive tool for detecting excess brain Mn accumulation. Specifically, T1-weighted images show bilateral hyperintensities of the globus pallidus (GP) due to the paramagnetic properties of Mn which increases the MR relaxation rate R1. Although the GP is considered the hallmark of excess brain Mn, this brain area is not necessarily associated with symptoms, exposure, or neuropsychological outcomes. Thus, the focus should not be on the GP only but on the entire brain. With recent advances in quantitative MRI (qMRI), whole brain mapping techniques allow for the direct measurement of relaxation rate changes due to Mn accumulation. The work in this dissertation uses such quantitative techniques and network science to establish novel computational in vivo imaging methods to a) visualize and quantify excess Mn deposition at the group and individual level, and b) characterize the toxicokinetics of excess brain Mn accumulation and the role of different brain regions in the development of neurotoxicity effects.</p><p><br></p><p dir="ltr">First, we developed a novel method for depicting excess Mn accumulation at the group level using high-resolution R1 relaxation maps to identify regional differences using voxel-based quantification (VBQ) and statistical parametric mapping. Second, we departed from a group analysis and developed subject-specific maps of excess brain Mn to gain a better understanding of the relationship between the spatial distribution of Mn and exposure settings. Third, we developed a novel method that combines network science with MRI relaxometry to characterize the storage and propagation of Mn and Fe in the human brain and the role of different brain regions in the development of neurotoxic effects. Lastly, we explore the application of ultra-short echo (UTE) imaging to map Fe content in the brain and compare it against R2* and quantitative susceptibility mapping (QSM).</p><p><br></p><p dir="ltr">Overall, this dissertation is a successful step towards establishing sensitive neuroimaging screening methods to study the effects of occupational Mn exposure. The individual Mn maps offer great potential for evaluating personal risk assessment for Mn neurotoxicity and allow monitoring of temporal changes in an individual, offering valuable information about the toxicokinetics of Mn. The integration of network science provides a holistic analysis to identify subtle changes in the brain’s mediation mechanisms of excess metal depositions and their associations with health outcomes.</p>

La protéostasie désigne l’ensemble de stratégies développées par la cellule pour assurer la préservation de son protéome. Parmi celles-ci on peut citer le contrôle du repliement, de la concentration, et de la distribution des protéines. Les neurones en raison de leur importante activité métabolique représentent une population cellulaire particulièrement vulnérable à l’altération de la protéostasie, auquel cas on parle de protéinopathie. C’est notamment le cas des tauopathies et β-amyloidopathies, deux troubles neurodégénératifs, respectivement caractérisés par le dysfonctionnement de la protéine tau et du peptide amyloïde-β (Aβ). La protéine tau par le biais de son état de phosphorylation contrôle la stabilisation des microtubules, tandis que l’Aβ issu du clivage de l’APP (Amyloid Precursor Protein) serait impliqué dans la plasticité synaptique ; de telle sorte que l’altération du fonctionnement ou de la protéostasie de ces deux molécules engendre de graves troubles neuronaux. Le glaucome, principale cause de cécité irréversible au monde, est une neuropathie dégénérative caractérisée par la perte spécifique des somas des cellules ganglionnaires de la rétine (CGR) et de leurs axones dans le nerf optique. Bien que l’hypertension oculaire (HTO) soit le principal facteur de risque, on ignore la cause du glaucome raison pour laquelle il n’existe aucun remède contre la maladie. La maladie d’Alzheimer (MA), principale cause de démence, est caractérisée par la présence d’enchevêtrement neurofibrillaires formés de la protéine tau dans les neurones et de plaques séniles constitué d’agrégats d’Aβ dans le parenchyme cérébral. De manière surprenante, de nombreuses études révèlent que le glaucome et la MA présentent de nombreux points communs. C’est ainsi que des agrégats d’Aβ et de tau ont été trouvés dans les CGR de sujets atteints du glaucome. De même les sujets victimes de la MA présentent des déficits visuels et une dégénérescence des CGR. Vu l’importance de tau pour la physiologie neuronale et son rôle de médiateur de la toxicité d’Aβ, nous proposons l’hypothèse selon laquelle le dysfonctionnement de la protéine tau résulte en la perte des CGR. Les résultats présentés dans cette thèse reposent sur deux modèles expérimentaux de neurodégénérescence : un modèle de glaucome dépendant de HTO chez les rats (modèle de Morrison) et le modèle 3xTg de la MA chez lequel les souris expriment des mutations dans la protéine tau et la voie Aβ (PS1M146V, APPSWE, TauP301L). Chez ces animaux nous avons prélevé la rétine, le nerf optique et le cerveau, sur lesquels nous avons étudié l’expression, la distribution, et la neurotoxicité de tau par western blot, immunohistochimie et PCR quantitative. Nos résultats révèlent que comparativement aux contrôles sains, les rétines malades (glaucome et MA) présentent une accumulation de tau anormalement phosphorylée, tandis que son expression génique reste inchangée. Cette hausse de tau est la conséquence de sa relocalisation vers le compartiment somatodendritique et le segment axonal intrarétinien des CGR, ceci au détriment des axones myélinisés inclus dans le nerf optique. Nos données montrent que les CGR 3xTg présentent une baisse drastique du transport axonal antérograde, indiquant que l’altération de la distribution de tau pourrait être à la base de cette perte de fonction axonale. Finalement, nous démontrons que l’accumulation de tau dans la rétine malade provoque éventuellement la mort des CGR. Au total, cette thèse démontre que les rétines atteintes du glaucome et de la MA présentent les manifestations cardinales des tauopathies à savoir l’accumulation, l’altération de la phosphorylation, et une distribution anormale de tau le tout culminant en la perte de fonction et la dégénérescence des CGR. / Proteostasis refers to a set of strategies developed by the cell to ensure the maintenance of its proteome. These strategies include the control of protein folding, the amount, and the distribution of the proteins. Neurons are endowed with a high metabolic rate and, as such, are highly vulnerable to alterations in proteostasis, a situation referred to as proteinopathy. Tauopathies and β-amyloidopathies are two such instances wherein tau and amyloid-β, respectively, undergo dysfunction. Tau protein is a microtubule stabilising protein which function is regulated by its phosphorylation state, while Aβ a product of the cleavage of APP (Amyloid Precursor Protein) which is thought to be involved in the regulation of synaptic plasticity. Therefore, functional or proteostatic alterations of these proteins result in harmful consequences for neurons. Glaucoma, the main cause of irreversible blindness, is a degenerative optic neuropathy characterised by the selective loss of retinal ganglion cells (RGC) and their axons in the optic nerve. Although ocular hypertension (OHT) is the main risk factor for the development of glaucoma, the cause of the disease is still unknown. There is currently no cure for glaucoma and the only available treatment is to reduce OHT pharmacologically or surgically. Alzheimer’s disease, the main cause of dementia, is characterized by the presence of neurofibrillary tangles made of tau protein in neurons and senile plaques made of Aβ in the cerebral parenchyma. Intriguingly, several studies have shown that glaucoma and AD share several common features. For instance, aggregates of tau and Aβ have been described in the retina of glaucoma subjects. Likewise, AD patients show visual defects associated with RGC degeneration. Mindful of the importance of tau for neuronal physiology, and of its role as mediator of Aβ toxicity, we put forward the hypothesis that tau protein alterations leads to RGC dysfunction and death. vii The results presented in this thesis were based on two experimental models of neurodegeneration: a model of OHT-dependent glaucoma in rats leading to RGC death (Morrison model), and the 3xTg model of AD wherein mice overexpress mutant forms of tau and Aβ (PS1M146V, APPSWE, TauP301L). Using these animals, we collected retina, optic nerve, and brains which we used to study tau expression, distribution and neurotoxicity by western blot, immunohistochemistry and real-time PCR. Our results show that, when compared to healthy controls, the diseased retina (glaucoma or AD) display accumulation of abnormally phosphorylated tau while its gene expression remains unchanged. The increase of retinal tau protein might result from the redistribution of the protein in the somatodendritic compartment and intraretinal axonal segment of RGCs at the expense of the extraocular axonal segment enclosed within the optic nerve. Our data also demonstrate that RGCs from 3xTg mice show a drastic reduction of anterograde axonal transport suggesting that missorted tau might underlie these functional deficits. Lastly, we demonstrate that tau accumulation in the diseased retina eventually promotes RGC death. Altogether, this thesis demonstrates that the glaucomatous and AD retinas present the cardinal features of tauopathies including tau accumulation, altered phosphorylation, and mislocalization which contribute to RGC dysfunction and subsequent death.

La consommation de poisson et de mammifères marins représente une source importante d’acides gras oméga-3 connus pour leurs effets bénéfiques sur le développement des fonctions cérébrales et notamment, sur le développement du système visuel. Afin de tester l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’exposition prénatale aux acides gras oméga-3 a des effets bénéfiques à long terme, nous avons examiné les fonctions visuelles chez des enfants Inuits d’âge scolaire exposés à de grandes quantités d’oméga-3 durant la période de gestation. Des enfants Inuits (n = 136; moyenne d’âge = 11.3 ans) du nord du Québec (Nunavik) ont participé à cette étude. Un protocole de potentiels évoqués visuels (PEVs) utilisant des stimuli en couleur et en mouvement a été employé afin d’appréhender les réponses parvo- et magnocellulaires respectivement. Les concentrations d’acide docosahexaénoïque (ADH) ont été mesurées à la naissance à partir du sang de cordon ombilical et au moment du testing, reflétant ainsi les expositions pré- et post-natales. Les relations entre les niveaux sanguins d’ADH et les PEVs ont été examinées à l’aide d’analyses de régression multiples, en tenant compte des contaminants environnementaux et d’autres variables potentiellement confondantes. Aucune association significative n’a été trouvée en ce qui concerne les stimuli de mouvement. Cependant, après ajustement pour les covariables, les concentrations d’ADH à la naissance étaient associées à une latence plus courte des composantes N1 et P1 des PEVs couleur. Notre étude démontre, pour la première fois, des effets bénéfiques de l’exposition prénatale à l’ADH sur le système parvocellulaire à l’âge scolaire. / Fish and sea mammals consumption is an important source of omega-3 fatty acids, known for their beneficial effects on human brain development. Several lines of evidence indicate that omega-3 fatty acids are beneficial especially for the development of the visual system. However, the long-term effect of prenatal exposure to omega-3 fatty acids on human visual development is unknown. This question was addressed using visual evoked potentials (PEVs) to study a cohort of school-age Inuit children (n = 136; mean age = 11.3 years old) from Arctic Quebec (Nunavik) who received high levels of omega-3 intake during gestation. PEV protocols using color and motion-onset stimuli were used to assess the parvocellular and magnocellular responses, respectively. Concentrations of the omega-3 fatty acid DHA were measured at birth in the umbilical cord and at the time of testing, reflecting pre- and post-natal exposure, respectively. Relations between omega-3 and VEPs were assessed by multivariate regression analyses, taking into account environmental contaminants and other potential confounding variables. No significant associations were found with motion-onset VEPs. However, after adjustment for covariables, cord blood concentrations of DHA were associated with a shorter latency of the N1 and P1 components of the color VEPs. Our study suggests beneficial effects of DHA on the visual parvocellular system at school age. This is the first study supporting the longlasting beneficial effects of prenatal exposure to DHA.

L’influence des contaminants environnementaux (CE) a été largement étudié en contexte d’exposition aigüe et d’intoxication. Qu’en est-il d’une exposition chronique à plus faibles doses sur le développement cognitif et sensoriel des enfants? Les études longitudinales de la présente thèse ont été réalisées au Nunavik. Bien que géographiquement éloignée des centres industriels, la communauté inuite est exposée aux CE via leur transport par les courants atmosphériques et océaniques ainsi que par leur bioaccumulation dans le poisson et les mammifères marins. Puisque l’alimentation autochtone traditionnelle, notamment la chair de béluga, est encore fréquemment consommée par la communauté, une proportion substantielle d’enfants inuits est exposée in utero aux CE. Ceux-ci sont également continuellement exposés à ces agents neurotoxiques durant leur développement postnatal. Or, la variation considérable dans l’adoption de l’alimentation traditionnelle au sein de la communauté représente une opportunité pour étudier la relation entre les niveaux d’exposition aux CE et le développement cognitif et sensoriel des enfants. Bien que certains déficits aient déjà été mis en lien avec l’exposition chronique aux CE dans la littérature, la présente thèse s’intéressa à cette relation plus spécifiquement chez les enfants inuits vivant dans le Grand Nord et plus exposés aux CE en raison de leur alimentation. Par ailleurs, les protocoles qui ont été développés pour cette thèse permettront d’évaluer des aspects qui ont été peu étudiés en lien avec les CE, soit l’attention visuospatiale et le traitement visuel cérébral précoce. Dans le premier volet de cette thèse, la relation entre trois CE et l’attention visuospatiale a été étudiée à l’aide d’une version adaptée de la tâche de Posner (M.I. Posner et al., 1980). Cette tâche psychophysique a été administrée à des enfants inuits (âge moyen = 11.2 ans) dont les niveaux d’exposition au mercure (Hg), au plomb (Pb) et aux biphényles polychlorés (BPCs) ont été documentés durant les périodes pré et postnatale. Les expositions in utero au Pb et aux BPCs ont été significativement associées à de l’impulsivité et de l’inattention, respectivement, alors que l’exposition postnatale au Pb a été associée à des temps de réaction plus longs. Bien qu’aucune relation spécifique avec l’attention visuospatiale n’ait été trouvée, les résultats de cette étude suggèrent que l’exposition aux CE est associée à une diminution des capacités attentionnelles générales chez les enfants résidant au Nunavik. Dans le second volet, le traitement cérébral précoce de l’information visuelle a été examiné à l’aide de potentiels évoqués visuels auprès d’enfants de la même communauté (âge moyen = 10.9 ans). La concentration de Hg dans le sang de cordon ombilical mesurée à la naissance a été associée à une réduction de l’amplitude et à une augmentation de la latence de la composante N75. L’exposition prénatale au Pb a quant à elle été associée à un délai dans la latence de la composante N150. Les résultats obtenus suggèrent ainsi que l’exposition aux métaux lourds, en particulier durant la période gestationnelle, serait associée à des altérations dans le développement visuel. Les résultats présentés dans cette thèse soutiennent l’hypothèse selon laquelle le cerveau en développement est vulnérable lors d’une exposition chronique aux CE, et cela même à des niveaux de concentration inférieurs aux limites recommandées par les organismes de santé publique. Les résultats permettent également d’apporter un éclairage nouveau sur les déficits cognitifs et sensoriels associés aux CE. / The deleterious impact of environmental contaminants (EC) has been extensively studied in acute exposure and poisoning events. What about the chronic exposure to lower doses on cognitive and sensory development of children? The longitudinal studies of this thesis were conducted in Nunavik. Although geographically distant from industrial centers, the Inuit community is exposed to EC via their transport by atmospheric and oceanic currents and their bioaccumulation in fish and sea mammals. Since traditional native foods, especially beluga meat, are still frequently consumed by this community, a substantial proportion of Inuit infants are exposed in utero to EC. Inuit children are also continuously exposed to these neurotoxic agents during postnatal development. The considerable variation in consumption of traditional food within this community provides an opportunity to investigate the relation between degree of exposure to EC and the effects on cognitive and sensory development of children. Although some deficits have already been related with chronic exposure to environmental contaminants in the literature, this thesis is interested more specifically at these relations in Inuit children living up North. Furthermore, the protocols that were developed for this thesis will evaluate new aspects related to EC, which are the visuospatial attention and the early brain visual processing. The first part of this thesis was designed to assess the effect of three EC on visuospatial attention with a modified Posner paradigm (M.I. Posner, et al., 1980). This psychophysical task was administered to Inuit children (mean age = 11.2 years) for whom the levels of exposure to mercury (Hg), lead (Pb) and polychlorinated biphenyls (PCBs) were documented for pre and postnatal periods. In utero exposures to Pb and PCBs were significantly associated with greater impulsivity and inattention, respectively, while current exposure to Pb was significantly associated with longer reaction times. Although no specific effect has been found on visuospatial attention, the results of this study suggest that exposure to EC is associated with decreased in general attentional abilities in children living in Nunavik. In the second part, early brain processing of visual information was assessed using visual evoked potentials with children from the same community (mean age = 10.9 years). Cord blood Hg level measured at birth was associated with a reduction of the amplitude and an increase of the latency of the N75 component. Prenatal exposure to Pb was associated with a delay of the N150 latency. These results suggest that heavy metal exposure, in particular during the gestational period, is associated with alterations in visual development. The results presented in this thesis support the hypothesis that the developing brain is vulnerable during a chronic exposure to EC, even at concentration levels below the limits recommended by public health agencies. The results also shed new light on cognitive and sensory deficits associated with EC.

Classés parmi les Polluants Organiques Persistants, les Hydrocarbures Aromatiques Polycycliques (HAP) sont des composés ubiquitaires dans l'environnement, auxquels l'Homme est exposé principalement via l'ingestion d'aliments contaminés. Les HAP sont connus depuis les années 1990 comme pouvant être neurotoxiques tant chez l'Homme que chez l'animal. Le transfert des HAP entre la mère et le foetus via le placenta ainsi que la présence de ces composés dans le lait maternel ont été montrés à plusieurs reprises, posant ainsi la question du risque lié à une exposition survenant lors de phases précoces du développement de l'individu. Parce que ce risque n'a été que partiellement étudié, le travail de thèse présenté dans ce manuscrit a eu pour objectif d'évaluer la toxicité à court et à long terme pour le système nerveux en développement, d'un mélange de 16 HAP ingéré par la rate gestante et/ou allaitante. Les HAP ont été administrés via un aliment contaminé à deux doses, 2 et 200 µg/kg/jour La dose la plus faible correspond aux niveaux de contamination environnementale via l'alimentation de la mère pendant les périodes de gestation et/ou d'allaitement. Les résultats montrent que l'exposition périnatale au mélange de HAP n'a pas induit d'effets à court terme sur le développement neuromoteur et sensoriel des jeunes rats. En revanche, une augmentation à long terme des niveaux d'activité et d'anxiété a été relevée chez les animaux exposés. Par ailleurs, des modifications du métabolisme énergétique cérébral, évalué par l'activité enzymatique de la cytochrome oxydase sur des coupes de cerveaux prélevés à différents âges ont été observées, notamment au niveau du système limbique. La mesure des concentrations de HAP dans le compartiment cérébral des ratons a montré la présence de l'ensemble des molécules mères, y compris chez les animaux témoins, ce qui laisse supposer l'existence d'un bruit de fond environnemental non négligeable dans ce type d'étude. Finalement, plusieurs facteurs modulent la toxicité induite, parmi lesquelles la période d'exposition, et l'administration d'un mélange et non d'une molécule seule. En conclusion, ce travail a permis de mettre en évidence, chez le rat, une neurotoxicité retardée suite à une exposition précoce à un mélange de 16 HAP tant sur le plan comportemental que métabolique, ce qui pose la question du risque pour l'Homme, et en particulier pour l'individu en développement, d'une exposition à ce type de composés / Compounds in the environment to which human is exposed mainly through ingestion of contaminated food. PAHs are known since the 1990s as being neurotoxic both in humans and in animals. PAH transfer between mother and fetus through the placenta, and the presence of these compounds in breast milk have been shown, thus raising the question of risk exposure occurring during early stages of development of the individual. Because this risk was only partially studied, the thesis presented in this manuscript was designed to assess the short-term and long-term toxicity for the developing nervous system, of a mixture of 16 PAHs ingested by the pregnant and / or breastfeeding rat. PAHs were administered via a contaminated food at two doses, 2 and 200 µg/kg /day dose. The lowest one corresponds to the levels of environmental contamination via the mother's diet during gestation and/or lactation. The results show that perinatal exposure to the mixture of PAHs did not induce short-term effects on neuromotor and sensory development on pups. In contrast, a long-term increase in activity and anxiety levels was observed in the exposed animals. In addition, changes in cerebral energy metabolism, as assessed by the enzymatic activity of cytochrome oxidase on brain sections taken at different ages were observed, particularly in the limbic system. Measures of the concentrations of PAHs in the pup brain compartment showed the presence of all the parent compounds, including control animals, suggesting the existence of an environmental noise significant. Finally, several factors modulate PAH toxicity, including the exposure period, and the administration of a mixture instead of a single molecule. In conclusion, this work has highlighted, in rats, delayed neurotoxicity due to early exposure to a mixture of 16 PAHs, which raises the question of risk to humans, and in particular for the individual developing exposure to such compounds

A cocaína é considerada a principal droga de abuso utilizada na América do Sul, sendo que o crack é a via de administração que mais cresceu nos últimos anos. Cabe salientar que o usuário do crack sofre ação tanto da cocaína quanto das substâncias advindas da sua pirólise, dentre elas a metilecgonidina (AEME). Trabalho publicado pelo nosso grupo demonstrou que a AEME é mais neurotóxica que a cocaína em cultura primária de hipocampo. Além disso, dados da literatura têm mostrado uma possível ação da AEME em receptores colinérgicos muscarínicos no sistema nervoso periférico. Na tentativa de elucidar se essa ação ocorre no sistema nervoso central, a AEME foi incubada na presença e na ausência de atropina, um antagonista de receptores colinérgicos muscarínicos. Nossos resultados em cultura primária de hipocampo mostraram que a atropina foi capaz de prevenir os efeitos neurotóxicos causados pela AEME, sugerindo uma afinidade aos receptores colinérgicos muscarínicos. Contudo, o mesmo efeito não foi observado após a incubação com a cocaína e a associação (AEME 1 mM /cocaína 2 mM). Pode-se pressupor que a AEME age preferencialmente em receptores colinérgicos muscarínicos subtipos M1, M3 e M5, uma vez que houve a formação de IP3 e aumento de cálcio intracelular, sendo esse último observado também nos grupos incubados com cocaína e associação (AEME 1 mM /cocaína 2 mM). Com a finalidade de verificar se a apoptose era uma das vias de morte neuronal, foi avaliada a expressão das proteínas mitoncondriais (Bax e Bcl-2), a atividade da caspase-3 e a análise da fragmentação do DNA, bem como a integridade da membrana celular. Foi observado que a AEME aumentou a razão das proteínas mitocondriais Bax/Bcl-2, a atividade da caspase-3 e o DNA fragmentado, bem como a perda da integridade da membrana. A cocaína aumentou a atividade da caspase 3, a fragmentação do DNA e a perda da integridade da membrana celular, mas não alterou a razão da expressão das proteínas mitocondriais Bax/Bcl-2. Apesar de apresentar uma diminuição da atividade da caspase-3, a associação (AEME 1 mM /cocaína 2 mM) apresentou um aumento do DNA fragmentado e do rompimento da membrana, bem como um aumento da razão Bax/Bcl-2. Estes dados sugerem que estas substâncias estimulam vias de morte neuronal tanto de apoptose quanto de necrose. Mais ainda, nas vias estudas neste trabalho, parece que a associação (AEME 1 mM /cocaína 2 mM) desencadeia os efeitos neurotóxicos mais rápido, estimulando, possivelmente, vias diferentes das encontradas com as substâncias isoladamente. / Cocaine is the main illicit drug used in South America, and the crack cocaine is the administration route that grown more than any other route in the last years. The user of crack cocaine suffers the action of both cocaine and its pyrolysis products, which methylecgonidine (AEME) is the main compound. Published work by our group demonstrated that AEME is more neurotoxic than cocaine in rat primary hippocampal cell culture. Moreover, published data have shown a possible muscarinic cholinergic action of AEME in the peripheral nervous system. To verify if this action occurs in the central nervous system, AEME was incubated in the presence and absence of atropine, a muscarinic cholinergic receptor antagonist. Our results in rat primary hippocampal cell culture showed that atropine was able to prevent AEME-induced neurotoxic effects, suggesting its affinity for muscarinic cholinergic receptors. However, this effect was not observed after incubation with cocaine and association (AEME 1 mM /cocaine 2 mM). It is suggestive that AEME acts, with preference, on subtypes M1, M3 and M5 muscarinic cholinergic receptors, once there was the formation of IP3 and the increase of intracellular calcium. It is important to mention that the intracellular calcium was also increased in both cocaine and association (AEME 1 mM /cocaine 2 mM) groups. In order to know whether apoptosis was a neuronal death pathway, it was evaluated the expression of mitochondrial proteins (Bax and Bcl-2), the capase-3 activity and the DNA fragmentation, as well as the loss of membrane integrity. It was observed that AEME increased the ratio of mitochondrial proteins Bax/Bcl-2, the activity of caspase-3, the fragmentation of DNA and the loss of membrane integrity. Cocaine increased the activity of caspase-3, the DNA fragmentation and the loss of cell membrane integrity, but did not affect the ratio expression of mitochondrial proteins Bax/Bcl-2. Although it was observed a decrease in caspase-3 activity, the association (AEME 1 mM / cocaine 2 mM) showed an increase in the DNA fragmentation and the cell membrane disruption, as well as an increase in Bax/Bcl-2 ratio. These data suggest that these substances stimulate neuronal death pathways of both apoptosis and necrosis. Moreover, in the pathways studied in this work, it seems that the association (AEME 1 mM /cocaine 2 mM) has the fastest neurotoxic effects, stimulating, possibly, different neuronal death pathways when compared to substances isolated.

La consommation de poisson et de mammifères marins représente une source importante d’acides gras oméga-3 connus pour leurs effets bénéfiques sur le développement des fonctions cérébrales et notamment, sur le développement du système visuel. Afin de tester l’hypothèse selon laquelle l’exposition prénatale aux acides gras oméga-3 a des effets bénéfiques à long terme, nous avons examiné les fonctions visuelles chez des enfants Inuits d’âge scolaire exposés à de grandes quantités d’oméga-3 durant la période de gestation. Des enfants Inuits (n = 136; moyenne d’âge = 11.3 ans) du nord du Québec (Nunavik) ont participé à cette étude. Un protocole de potentiels évoqués visuels (PEVs) utilisant des stimuli en couleur et en mouvement a été employé afin d’appréhender les réponses parvo- et magnocellulaires respectivement. Les concentrations d’acide docosahexaénoïque (ADH) ont été mesurées à la naissance à partir du sang de cordon ombilical et au moment du testing, reflétant ainsi les expositions pré- et post-natales. Les relations entre les niveaux sanguins d’ADH et les PEVs ont été examinées à l’aide d’analyses de régression multiples, en tenant compte des contaminants environnementaux et d’autres variables potentiellement confondantes. Aucune association significative n’a été trouvée en ce qui concerne les stimuli de mouvement. Cependant, après ajustement pour les covariables, les concentrations d’ADH à la naissance étaient associées à une latence plus courte des composantes N1 et P1 des PEVs couleur. Notre étude démontre, pour la première fois, des effets bénéfiques de l’exposition prénatale à l’ADH sur le système parvocellulaire à l’âge scolaire. / Fish and sea mammals consumption is an important source of omega-3 fatty acids, known for their beneficial effects on human brain development. Several lines of evidence indicate that omega-3 fatty acids are beneficial especially for the development of the visual system. However, the long-term effect of prenatal exposure to omega-3 fatty acids on human visual development is unknown. This question was addressed using visual evoked potentials (PEVs) to study a cohort of school-age Inuit children (n = 136; mean age = 11.3 years old) from Arctic Quebec (Nunavik) who received high levels of omega-3 intake during gestation. PEV protocols using color and motion-onset stimuli were used to assess the parvocellular and magnocellular responses, respectively. Concentrations of the omega-3 fatty acid DHA were measured at birth in the umbilical cord and at the time of testing, reflecting pre- and post-natal exposure, respectively. Relations between omega-3 and VEPs were assessed by multivariate regression analyses, taking into account environmental contaminants and other potential confounding variables. No significant associations were found with motion-onset VEPs. However, after adjustment for covariables, cord blood concentrations of DHA were associated with a shorter latency of the N1 and P1 components of the color VEPs. Our study suggests beneficial effects of DHA on the visual parvocellular system at school age. This is the first study supporting the longlasting beneficial effects of prenatal exposure to DHA.