Over the years, the Burgess group has been focusing on the preparation and testing of small molecules that mimic protein secondary structures for protein-protein interactions. The most successful compounds made are C10 peptide macrocycles that effectively mimic β-turns and have given promising results from biological testing. These peptide macrocycles have also been dimerized to give even more effective ligands for protein-protein interaction. The successes of the peptide macrocycles have enabled us to look into increasing the chemical diversity of our libraries. This we believe will not only improve our ability to obtain high affinity ligands for the receptors of interest, but will also allow us to investigate other receptors. To achieve this, peptoids were incorporated into the C10 system to replace the peptides in the i+1 and i+2 positions. With the help of Microwave irradiation, semi-peptoid macrocycles were synthesized with a total reaction time of less than 2 h. These compounds were characterized and found to mimic β-turn, and show promising biological activity towards the Insulin-like growth factor 1 receptor (IGF-IR).

Πρόσφατα δεδομένα υποδεικνύουν ότι η έκφραση του p75NTR και των Trk υποδοχέων των νευροτροφινών (TrkA, TrkB, TrkC) είναι ιδιαίτερα σημαντική όχι μόνο στη νευρωνική επιβίωση κατά τη διάρκεια της ανάπτυξης και την ενήλικο ζωή αλλά και σε ποικίλες κυτταρικές διαδικασίες όπως η ανοσολογική απάντηση του οργανισμού σε φλεγμονές. Ο σκοπός αυτής της μελέτης ήταν να ερευνήσει την κυτταρική εντόπιση και κατανομή του p75NTR και των Trk υποδοχέων των νευροτροφινών στην ελκώδη κολίτιδα σε σύγκριση με το φυσιολογικό έντερο του ενήλικα ανθρώπου χρησιμοποιώντας την ανοσοϊστοχημική μέθοδο. Στη μελέτη συμπεριελήφθησαν 45 περιπτώσεις ελκώδους κολίτιδας και 5 δείγματα φυσιολογικού εντέρου. Παρατηρήθηκε αύξηση της έκφρασης όσον αφορά τους TrkA υποδοχείς τόσο στο επιθήλιο όσο και στα κύτταρα του εντερικού νευρικού συστήματος στο φλεγμονώδες σε σχέση με το φυσιολογικό έντερο. Έντονη έκφραση των TrkB υποδοχέων ταυτοποιήθηκε στο μυϊκό τοίχωμα των αγγείων και στα εντεροενδοκρινή κύτταρα του επιθηλίου στο φλεγμονώδες και στο φυσιολογικό έντερο. Μειωμένη έκφραση, τόσο στο επιθήλιο όσο και στο εντερικό νευρικό σύστημα, όσον αφορά την έκφραση των TrkB και TrkC υποδοχέων παρατηρήθηκε στις περιπτώσεις ελκώδους κολίτιδας σε σχέση με το φυσιολογικό έντερο. Ο p75NTR παρουσίασε έκφραση αποκλειστικά στα πλέγματα του νευρικού συστήματος, τόσο στο φυσιολογικό όσο και στο φλεγμονώδες έντερο. Τα παραπάνω αποτελέσματα υποδεικνύουν ότι οι νευροτροφίνες μέσω της δέσμευσής τους με τους Trk υποδοχείς και τον p75NTR πιθανόν εμπλέκονται στην παθογένεια των φλεγμονών όπως η ελκώδης κολίτιδα κατά την ενήλικο ζωή. / -

Σκοπός: Ο νεοεννευρωμένος μεσοσπονδύλιος δίσκος (ΜΔ), κλινικά θεωρείται μια σημαντική πηγή πόνου στους ασθενείς με οσφυαλγία. Η ταυτοποίηση των νεοσχηματιζόμενων νεύρων, που εκφράζουν τους υποδοχείς των νευροτροφινών, στην εκφύλιση του ΜΔ, σπονδυλικών επιπέδων που αναφέρονται ως πηγή δισκογενή πόνου και η συσχέτισή τους με το ενδοκανναβινοειδές σύστημα αναλγησίας, αποτελεί το αντικείμενο αυτής της μελέτης. Υλικό και μέθοδος: Συλλέχθηκαν 50 ανθρώπινοι ΜΔ ή τμήματα αυτών, μετά από δισκεκτομή σε χειρουργεία κήλης και εκφυλιστικών παθήσεων της Οσφυϊκής Μοίρας της Σπονδυλικής Στήλης (ΟΜΣΣ). Εφαρμόσθηκε ανοσοϊστοχημεία για την ανίχνευση νευρικών ινών, στους ΜΔ, αφού διαπιστώθηκε η εκφύλισή τους. Συσχετίσθηκε η ανάπτυξη νευρικών ινών των εκφυλισμένων ΜΔ με την έκφραση των υψηλής και χαμηλής συγγένειας υποδοχέων των νευροτροφινών, TrkA, TrkB, TrkC και p75, αντίστοιχα. Στα περιστατικά με ανάπτυξη νευρικών ινών ανιχνεύθηκε ανοσοϊστοχημικά η έκφραση του υποδοχέα CB1 των ενδοκανναβινοειδών. Αποτελέσματα: Η εκτεταμένη νεύρωση στον ΜΔ που φέρεται στον έσω ινώδη δακτύλιο (ΙΔ) και μπορεί να φτάνει μέχρι τον πηκτοειδή πυρήνα (ΠΠ), φαίνεται να είναι εξαρτώμενη από τους υποδοχείς των νευροτροφινών TrkA, TrkB, TrkC και p75. Μικρά αιμοφόρα αγγεία συνοδεύουν τις νευρικές ίνες στα σπονδυλικά επίπεδα του ΜΔ που δίνουν δισκογενή πόνο και εκφράζουν επίσης τους υποδοχείς των νευροτροφινών. Ο CB1 υποδοχέας των ενδοκανναβινοειδών ταυτοποιήθηκε σε όλα τα περιστατικά που εμφάνιζαν ανάπτυξη νευρικών ινών. Βρέθηκε να εκφράζεται στα αγγεία που συνοδεύουν τις νευρικές ίνες και σε μερικά νεύρα. Δεν ταυτοποιήθηκε ανάπτυξη νευρικών ινών σε εκφυλισμένους ΜΔ σπονδυλικών επιπέδων που δεν αποτελούσαν αιτία δισκογενούς οσφυαλγίας. Συμπέρασμα: Η αλγοϊδιοδεκτική ανάπτυξη νευρικών ινών στον ΜΔ συνδέεται με την έκφραση των υποδοχέων των νευροτροφινών στις νεοσχηματιζόμενες νευρικές ίνες, δείχνοντας ότι όχι μόνο ο NGF, αλλά και άλλες νευροτροφίνες εμπλέκονται στην ανάπτυξη νευρικών ινών. Η έκφραση του CB1 υποδοχέα των ενδοκανναβινοειδών αποτελεί πεδίο έρευνας για τη θεραπεία του δισκογενή πόνου. / The current study was designed in order to detect immunohistochemically the expression of cannabinoid CB1 receptor and high and low affinity neurotrophin receptors TrkA, TrkB, TrkC and p75 respectively in human painful intervertebral disc (IVD). Previous data have shown an association between nerve ingrowth in human degenerated IVD and patient’s experience of pain. The nociceptive nerve ingrowth into painful IVD is causally linked with Nerve Growth Factor (NGF) production by blood vessels growing into the IVD. NGF causes further innervation and is involved in processes that result in an inflammatory hyperalgesia. There is evidence that cannabinoids show a neuronal CB1 receptor-mediated antihyperalgesic action and a separate inhibition of proinflammatory neuroimmune processes. A total of 50 IVD specimens after lumbar discectomy were included in the present study. The degeneration of IVD was identified and connected with clinical background of patients. An immunoperoxidase method on formalin-fixed, paraffin-embedded tissue sections and specific antibodies against CB1 and neurotrophin receptors (TrkA, TrkB, TrkC and p75) were used. Immunohistochemistry was also performed to detect neural and vascular markers: tubulin (βIII) and CD31. Neurotrophin receptors (TrkA, TrkB, TrkC and p75) expression was detected only in innervated degenerated IVD. Blood microvessels accompanied nerve fibers growing into IVD expressed also neurotrophin receptors. Furthermore, in some nerve fibers CB1 cannabinoid receptor expression was identified. Interestingly, CB1 receptor expression was detected in the majority of vessels accompanying nerve fibers. Nociceptive nerve ingrowth into degenerated IVD was strongly associated with all neurotrophin receptors expression indicating that not only NGF but also and others neurotrophins are involved in nerve ingrowth. Expression of CB1 cannabinoid receptor in innervated IVD suggests a possible therapeutic site of analgesic action. Additional studies would be necessary to clarify the functional role of CB1 cannabinoid receptor in degenerated intervertebral disc.

Análise da expressão de neurotrofinas durante a regeneração de nervo periférico de rato por enxerto venoso Enxertos de veias têm sido empregados para preencher lacunas em nervos periféricos transeccionados para melhor recuperação funcional. No entanto, vários inconvenientes, como a constrição do enxerto secundário foram observados. Uma nova alternativa para esta técnica foi desenvolvida. Simplesmente invertendo a veia de dentro para fora, chamado do Inside- out vein graft. As neurotrofinas são uma família de fatores neurotróficos conhecidos por desempenhar um papel significativo na regeneração de nervos periféricos. A família da neurotrofina é constituído por fator de crescimento nervoso (NGF), fator neurotrófico derivado do cérebro (BDNF), Neurotrofina-3 (NT-3) e Neurotrofina-4 (NT-4). No campo da neurobiologia, vários autores têm utilizado a técnica de PCR a fim de obter mais informações sobre os nervos regenerados. Neste estudo, foi utilizada a técnica de biologia molecular para explorar o papel e o nível das neurotrofinas durante a regeneração de nervos periféricos com enxerto de veia. O nervo isquiático de ratos foi seccionado e reparado com enxerto de veia invertida (IOVG) e técnicas de enxerto de veia padrão (SVG). No grupo controle, os ratos foram operados e o nervo isquiático foi mantido intacto. Os animais foram sacrificados após 6 e 12 semanas e os enxertos foram colhidos para observar o nível das neurotrofinas. Músculos EDL e Sóleo foram excisados e pesados para determinar a diferença de peso entre os grupos. Um pequeno segmento dos cotos distais de ambos os grupos SVG e IOVG também foram excisados e foram processados histologicamente para examinar a quantidade de axónios regenerados. Além disso, um outro pequeno segmento do coto distal foi processado para RT-PCR para analisar o nível das neurotrofinas nesta área.A tecnica do walk track analysis foi realizada para determinar o índice funcional do nervo isquiático nos grupos. Em 6 semanas, não ocorreu crescimento neuronal significativo no coto distal dos dois tipos de enxertos, porém um crescimento foi observado em 12 semanas. Não houve diferença significativa na massa muscular entre IOVG e SVG em ambos os períodos de tempo. No entanto, um aumento significativo na massa muscular foi observado a partir de 6 a 12 semanas nos grupos IOVG e SVG. Um aumento significativo na produção de NT-3 foi observado no grupo de SVG em ambos, enxerto e o coto distal quando comparados a partir de 6 a 12 semanas, no entanto, não houve aumento observado no nível de neurotrofinas dos outros tipos (NGF e NT-4) . Surpreendentemente, não houve aumento significativo da NT-3 no grupo IOVG. Conclui-se que, entre as neurotrofinas avaliadas neste estudo, não há nenhuma diferença significativa no seu nível de RNAm entre os dois grupos, exceto NT-3. Finalmente, uma vez que o nível de RNAm de NT-3 aumenta significativamente entre 6 e 12 semanas no grupo SVG e não no IOVG, observado por estas duas técnicas de nível molecular, estudos adicionais necessitam serem feitos para decifrar o mecanismo exato. / Vein grafts have been employed to bridge the gap in transected peripheral nerves to produce better functional recovery. However several disadvantages such as secondary graft constriction were observed and a new alternative to this technique was developed by simply reversing the vein inside out. Both inside out and standard vein grafts were successfully used in recovering the sensory segmental defect in humans. Neurotrophins are a family of eurotrophic factors known to play an important role in the regeneration of peripheral nerves. The neurotrophin family consists of Nerve Growth Factor (NGF), Brain Derived Neurotrophic Factor (BDNF), Neurotrophin-3 (NT-3) and Neurotropinh-4 (NT-4). In the neurobiology field, several authors have been using PCR technique in order to gain more information regarding regenerated nerves. In this study, we employed this molecular biology technique to explore the role and level of the neurotrophins during the peripheral nerve regeneration with vein graft. The sciatic nerve of rats were sectioned and repaired with Inside out vein graft (IOVG) and standard vein graft techniques (SVG). In the control group the rats were sham operated wherein the sciatic nerve was kept intact. The animals were euthanized at 6 and 12 weeks and the grafts were harvested to observe the level the neurotrophins. EDL and Sol muscles were excised and measured to determine any weight difference between the groups. A small segment of the distal stumps from both the SVG and IOVG groups were also excised and were subjected to histological process to examine the amount of regenerated axon. In addition, another small segment of the distal stump was processed for RT-PCR to further examine the level of the neurotrophins in this area. At 6 weeks, no significant neuronal growth was observed in the distal stump of both graft types but a distinct growth was seen at 12 weeks. Walk track analysis showed poor motor function recovery in the experimental groups during both time intervals. Morphometric analysis demonstrated no significant differences in the amount of myelination between both the groups. There was no significant difference in the muscle mass between IOVG and SVG in both time periods. However, a significant increase in both the muscle mass was observed from 6 to 12 weeks in the IOVG and SVG groups. A significant increase in the production of NT-3 was observed in SVG group in both the distal stump and graft segment when compared from 6 to 12 weeks; however there was no observed increase in the level of other neurotrophins (NGF and NT-4). Surprisingly, no significant increase of NT-3 was noticed in the IOVG group. We conclude that amongst the neurotrophins evaluated in this study, there is no significant difference in their mRNA level between both groups except NT-3. Also, since mRNA level of NT-3 increases significantly between 6 and 12 weeks in SVG and not in IOVG, it suggests that the mechanism by which these two techniques operate at a molecular level may differ and further studies need to be done to decipher the exact mechanism.

Neurotrophins, such as nerve growth factor (NGF) and brain derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), are key factors in neuronal survival and function. In Alzheimer's disease (AD), there is a change in the normal level of these neurotrophins and their precursors (proNGF and proBDNF). The mechanism/s underlying changes in the levels of these neurotrophins in AD is not fully understood. According to the amyloid cascade hypothesis, amyloid-β is the original insult in AD and tau pathology is a downstream event. Amyloid-β interferes with axonal transport and reduces BDNF levels. However, it is not clear if amyloid-β affects neurotrophin levels directly or through tau hyperphosphorylation. If tau is responsible for changes in the level of neurotrophins in AD, we expect to observe the same alteration in neurotrophin levels in other diseases with tau dysfunction such as tauopathies. We tested the levels of BDNF mRNA and proNGF protein in subjects with tauopathies. We observed significant decrease in BDNF mRNA levels in subjects with Corticobasal degeneration. Our result suggests that BDNF may be down-regulated by tau hyperphosphorylation. Moreover, we showed that there was a significant increase in the level of proNGF in Pick's disease (PiD). Interestingly, AD and PiD share common tau modifications. Our result demonstrates a role for tau dysfunction in changes in the level of proNGF. Therefore, study of the levels of NGF and BDNF in non-AD tauopathies has shed light on the mechanisms underlying neurotrophin dysregulation in AD. How do increased levels of proNGF impact the brain in AD or PiD? Is neuronal degeneration in AD or PiD due to the lack of neurotrophic support of proNGF or do increased levels of apoptotic proNGF cause neurodegeneration? Lee et al. (2001b) and Fahnestock et al. (2004a) produced two different cleavage-resistant proNGFs with opposite activities (apoptotic versus neurotrophic). Structural and procedural differences between the two cleavage resistant proNGFs and different bioassays can cause opposite activities. We showed that proNGF from Lee's lab was neurotrophic when it was expressed in the expression system used by Fahnestock et al. or when it was purified. ProNGF expressed in a different expression system was also neurotrophic. ProNGF was neurotrophic in all bioassays except the serum withdrawal assay. We conclude that proNGF is normally neurotrophic but may be apoptotic when cell survival is already compromised. We propose that in AD, cells undergo degeneration due to the lack of neurotrophic support of proNGF (impaired transport). Moreover, TrkA is downregulated in AD which compromises cell survival and may lead to apoptosis induced by increased levels of proNGF. / Thesis / Doctor of Philosophy (PhD)

The formation of axon collateral branches from the pre-existing shafts of axons is an important aspect of neurodevelopment and the response of the nervous system to injury. Both the actin filament and microtubule components of the cytoskeleton are required for the formation of axon branches. Recent work has begun to shed light on how these two elements of the cytoskeleton are integrated by proteins that functionally or physically link the cytoskeleton. While a number of signaling pathways have been determined as having a role in the formation of axon branches, the complexity of the downstream mechanisms and links to specific signaling pathways remain to be fully determined. Neurotrophins are growth factors that have a multitude of roles in the nervous system. In sensory neurons nerve growth factor (NGF) induces branching through activation of phosphoinositide 3-kinase (PI3K). Recently, mitochondria have emerged as major determinants of the sites of axon branching. In this work we reveal a new role of neurotrophins in mitochondria fission. We report that NGF promote a rapid burst of mitochondria fission, followed by a new steady state of mitochondria length and density. Mek- Erk and PI3k pathways are required for NGF-induced fission. Mek-Erk controls fission through Drp1 activation, while we suggest that PI3K may contributes to the actin dependent aspect of fission. Drp1 mediated fission is required for NGF- induced branching in sensory neurons in vitro and the branching of sensory axons along the developing spinal cord. We reveal that fission is also required for the intra-axonal translation of the actin regulatory proteins Cortactin and Arp2 subunit from the Arp2/3 complex, an important aspect of NGF induced branching. Collectively, these observations reveal a novel role of neurotrophins in mitochondria fission and the formation of collateral branching / Neuroscience

No / Nerve growth factor (NGF) has long been recognized as an important mast cell (MC) growth factor. To explore whether other neurotrophins (NTs) of the NGF family, which are widely expressed in mouse skin, affect the numbers and/or functions of MCs we examined the effects of NT-3 on neonatal skin MCs. We demonstrate that TrkC, the high affinity NT-3 receptor, is expressed by virtually all neonatal skin MCs in C57BL/6 mice, which indicates that MCs can respond to NT-3. Skin of neonatal and early postnatal NT-3-overexpressing mice (promoter: K14) displayed significantly and up to twofold increased numbers of MCs during the first 20 days after birth, as compared to wild-type mice. To check whether this increase in MC numbers in NT-3 transgenic mice reflects a higher rate of proliferation, we performed immunohistochemistry, which revealed that only 1-2% of all skin MCs both in NT-3-overexpressing and in wild-type controls showed Ki-67-positive nuclei, suggesting that the observed differences in the number of MCs do not reflect a higher rate of MC proliferation. Additionally, we show that the effect of NT-3 on the number of MCs is most likely to be stem cell factor (SCF)-independent, because NT-3 significantly downregulates secretion of SCF-protein in cultured dermal fibroblasts, as assessed by enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. Numbers of skin MCs in neonatal TrkC-deficient mice were found to be modestly reduced, as compared to wild-type mice, indicating that NT-3 can modulate the number of MCs directly via TrkC, although TrkC does not seem to be essential for the number of basal MCs. To further analyze the effects of NT-3 on MCs, we stimulated skin organ culture of early postnatal C57BL/6 mouse skin with 5-50 ng/ml NT-3, which induced a significant increase in MC degranulation, as visualized by Giemsa staining. However, stimulation of isolated neonatal dermal skin MCs with NT-3 in vitro failed to result in MC activation, as measured by serotonin release. Our data suggest a role for NT-3 in the maturation of MCs, such as a TrkC-mediated stimulation of the differentiation of pre-existing, less mature MCs and/or by enhancing the migration of circulating MC precursors into the skin.

O transtorno bipolar (TB) é uma doença crônica, altamente incapacitante e sua fisiopatologia não esta bem esclarecida. Apresenta altas taxas de comorbidades clínicas e risco de suicídio trazendo prejuízos e custos significativos para o indivíduo com a doença e para a sociedade. Existem evidências que relacionam o TB à alterações no fator de crescimento semelhante à insulina tipo 1 (IGF- 1) e nos sistemas endócrino e imune. O objetivo deste estudo foi avaliar os níveis séricos de IGF-1 em pacientes bipolares comparados com indivíduos controle e sua relação com a inflamação. Foram selecionados 31 pacientes com TB e 33 controles saudáveis. Foram avaliadas as concentrações séricas de IGF-1, hormônio do crescimento (GH), insulina e fator de necrose tumoral α (TNF-α). Como resultado deste estudo, observamos que os níveis séricos de IGF-1 estavam aumentados em pacientes com TB em relação aos controles (p = 0,001). Não foram observadas diferenças estatisticamente significativas entre os grupos nas dosagens de insulina, GH e TNF- α. Este estudo sugere uma associação entre IGF-1 na fisiopatologia do transtorno bipolar. É possível que este aumento periférico esteja relacionado com um aumento da resistência do IGF- 1 no SNC, reduzindo assim a sua ação neuroprotetora. / Bipolar disorder (BD) is a chronic, highly debilitating and its pathophysiology is not well understood. It offers high rates of clinical comorbidities and suicide risk causing losses and significant costs to the individual with the disease and society. There is evidence that relates to changes in TB-like growth factor type 1 insulin (IGF-1) and the endocrine and immune systems. The aim of this study was to evaluate serum levels of IGF-1 in bipolar patients compared with control subjects and their relationship to inflammation. We selected 31 patients with TB and 33 healthy controls. Serum concentrations of IGF-1, growth hormone, were evaluated (GH), insulin and tumor necrosis factor α (TNF-α). As a result of this study, we observed that serum levels of IGF-1 were increased in TB patients compared to controls (p = 0.001). No statistically significant differences were found between groups in insulin dosages, GH, and TNF-α. This study suggests an association between IGF-1 in the pathophysiology of bipolar disorder. It is possible that this increase is associated with peripheral increased IGF-1 resistance in the CNS, thus reducing its neuroprotective action.

Biological responses to orthodontic forces involve various cell types, these include fibroblasts, endothelial cells, blood vessels and sensory nerves in the periodontal ligament as well as osteoblasts, osteoclasts and cementoblasts in roots and bone surfaces. Neurotrophins are believed to interact with these cells to initiate the process of bone resorption particularly during orthodontic tooth movement. Neuropeptides released from sensory neurons have been shown to modulate the tissue inflammatory responses. In addition, neurotrophins, including nerve growth factor (NGF), play an important role in neural cell differentiation and survival. The exact localization and function of neurotrophins and neurotrophic receptors in the dento-alveolar complex remains unclear. Moreover, the identity and distribution of structures expressing neurotrophins and neurotrophic receptors has yet to be fully determined. It is reasonable to propose that periodontal ligament and alveolar bone remodelling may be influenced by NGF. In addition, anti-NGF may block neurochemical changes and, hence, inhibit orthodontic tooth movement. The aims of this research were to investigate the cells responsible for NGF secretion within the periodontal ligament (PDL), pulp and bone, and the effect that anti-NGF might have on orthodontic tooth movement. 28, 8 week-old, male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into control and experimental groups. Fourteen experimental animals had anti-NGF injected paradentally. Animals were sacrificed at 7 and 14 days. Sections from an earlier study were examined and stained using TRAP for osteoclast identification and analysed histomorphometrically to enable comparisons between control and experimental groups. The findings of this investigation indicated that injections of anti-NGF did not significantly affect the rate of tooth movement with the use of different tooth movement measurement methods. TRAP staining proved to be a useful and reliable marker of osteoclasts. TRAP-positive osteoclastic cells were detected in both anti-NGF and control groups. However, the TRAP-positive cells were not stained intensely with NGF immunolabelling. On the other hand, cells that were stained intensely with NGF, were TRAP-negative. The results suggested that both sympathetic and nociceptive nerves might function in counter balance to modulate bone resorption, and osteoclasts might not be directly responsible for NGF secretion within the PDL and bone. Further studies to determine the effect of NGF on tooth movement are warranted to more clearly identify the NGF expressing cells within the rat dento-alveolar complex and possible role played by NGF in orthodontic tooth movement. / http://library.adelaide.edu.au/cgi-bin/Pwebrecon.cgi?BBID=1297498 / Thesis (D.Clin.Dent.)-- School of Dentistry, 2007

Voluntary wheel running is rewarding and believed to activate the same brain reward system as in alcohol and drug addiction. Brain-derived neurotrophic factor (BDNF), a well-known growth factor widely expressed in the brain, is modulated by both voluntary exercise and alcohol consumption. The aim of this study was to evaluate how voluntary exercise affects the expression levels of BDNF and its receptor TrkB in brain regions involved in positive and negative reinforcement. Additionally we wanted to evaluate the effect it may have on alcohol drinking behaviors in C57BL/6 mice, a mouse model which are naturally prone for engaging in voluntary exercise and voluntary alcohol consumption. We found a small upregulation in DG and CA1 after three weeks of exercise, confirming findings by others, and a significant 3-fold downregulation of BDNF in NAc after both three weeks of exercise and exercise followed by a five week period of either ethanol intake or not. Interestingly, we here show a significant 100-fold increase in BDNF after exercise and a 120-fold increase after both exercise and alcohol consumption in amygdala, a region involved in regulation of anxiety-related behavior and negative reinforcement. Additionally a slightly lower 10-fold increase in BDNF was seen after exercise and a 15-fold increase after exercise followed by ethanol in prefrontal cortex, a structure contributing to reward-related behavior. Behaviorally, we could not either directly following exercise or at five weeks post-exercise detect any significant effect of wheel-running on depression-related behavior. However, we did find that exercise significantly increased the alcohol intake.