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2-Nitropropane dioxygenase from Hansenula mrakii is a flavin-dependent enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of anionic nitroalkanes into the corresponding carbonyl compounds and nitrite, with oxygen as the electron acceptor. Although nitroalkanes are anticipated to be toxic and carcinogenic, they are used widely in chemical industry for a quick and effective way of synthesizing common reagents. Consequently, the biochemical and biophysical analysis of 2-nitropropane dioxyganase has a potential for bioremediation purposes. In this study, recombinant enzyme is purified to high levels, allowing for detailed characterization. The biochemical analysis of 2-nitropropane dioxygenase presented in this study has established that enzyme utilizes alkyl nitronates as substrates by forming an anionic flavosemiquinone in catalysis. The enzyme is inhibited by halide ions, does not contain iron and has a positive charge located close to the N(1)-C(2)=O locus of the isoalloxazine moiety of the FMN cofactor.

Nitronate monooxygenase (E.C. 1.13.11.16), formerly known as 2-nitropropane dioxygenase (EC 1.13.11.32), is a flavin dependent enzyme that catalyzes the oxidation of nitronates to their corresponding carbonyl compounds and nitrite. Despite the fact that the enzyme was first isolated from Neurospora crassa 60 years ago, the biochemical and physiological properties of nitronate monooxygenase have remained largely elusive. This dissertation will present the work that established both the catalytic mechanism and physiological role of the fungal enzyme. The biological and biochemical properties of propionate-3-nitronate, the recently discovered physiological substrate for nitronate monooxygenase, will be extensively reviewed. The nitronate is produced by a variety of variety leguminous plants and fungi and is a potent and irreversible inhibitor of succinate dehydrogenase. Nitronate monooxygenase allows N. crassa to overcome the toxicity of propionate-3-nitronate as demonstrated by in vivo studies of the yeast, which showed that the wild-type can grow in the presence of the toxin whereas a knock out mutant that lacks the gene encoding for the enzyme could not. In addition to establishing the physiological role of nitronate monooxygenase, the work presented here demonstrates that the catalytic mechanism of the enzyme involves the formation of an anionic flavosemiquinone intermediate. This intermediate is stabilized by the protonated form of an active site histidine residue (His-196) that acts as an electrostatic catalyst for the reaction as demonstrated by pH studies of the reductive half reaction of the enzyme. Histidine 196 also serves as the catalytic base for the reaction of the enzyme with nitroethane as substrate as revealed through mutagenesis studies in which the residue was replaced with an asparagine. The kinetic implications of branching of reaction intermediates in enzymatic catalysis are also demonstrated through studies of the kinetic isotope effects of nitronate monooxygenase with 1,1-[2H2]-nitroethane as substrate. Finally the use of competitive inhibitors as a probe of enzyme structure will be presented through a study of the inhibition of nitronate monooxygenase with mono-valent inorganic ions. The dissertation will close with unpublished work on the enzyme and concluding remarks concerning the biochemistry and physiology of nitronate monooxygenase.

The liver presented exceptional characteristics, like controlling energy production, immunological defenses, and blood reserve. In the environment like in the work place, the human is exposed to a different kind of hepatotoxic compounds, for example, on inks and derivatives (2-nitropropane), chemical reagents (carbon tetrachloride) and in tobacco smoke (2-nitropropane and cadmium). In fact, is interesting studies of therapies which protect or ameliorated the damage induced by these compounds. Considering the growing interesting around organochalcogens, in special interest, diphenyl diselenide (PhSe)2, which posses important pharmacological properties, such as: anti-ulcer, antiinflammatory, antinociceptive, anti-hyperglycemic, protected against orofacial diskinesia induced by reserpine and halopheridol and may act on memory facilitation in mice, the hepatoprotective properties of this compound induced by different models of liver damage (2-nitropropane, cadmium and carbon tetrachloride) were examined. The results demonstrated that (PhSe)2 (100 µmol/kg) significantly reduced hepatic markers levels when compared to 2-nitropropane (2-NP) group. Treatment with diphenyl diselenide, at all doses, effectively protects against the increase of lipid peroxidation when compared to 2-NP group. In addition, histological examination revealed that 2-NP treatment causes a moderate swelling and degenerative alterations on hepatocytes and (PhSe)2 protects against these alterations. This study evidences the protective effect of diphenyl diselenide by 2-NP-induced acute hepatic damage. In addition the effect of post-treatment with (PhSe)2 on liver damage induced by 2-NP was also examined. (PhSe)2 effectively restored the increase of aminotransferase activities and urea level when compared to the 2-NP group. At the highest dose (100 mol/kg), (PhSe)2 decreased -glutamyl transferase activity (GGT) and ameliorated the increase of hepatic and renal lipid peroxidation when compared to 2-NP group. 2-NP reduced catalase activity (CAT) and did not alter superoxide dismutase activity (SOD) nor ascorbic acid level. This study points out the involvement of CAT activity in 2-NP-induced acute liver damage and suggests that the post-treatment with diphenyl diselenide was effective in restoring the hepatic damage induced by 2-NP. Similar results were obtained with cadmium (Cd), an environmental toxic metal implicated in human diseases. Cadmium content determined in the tissue of rats exposed to cadmium chloride (CdCl2) provides evidence that the liver is the major cadmium target. The concentration of cadmium in liver was about three fold higher than that in kidney, and (PhSe)2 reduced about six fold the levels of this metal in liver of rats exposed. Rats exposed to CdCl2 showed histological alterations abolished by (PhSe)2 administration. In addition, (PhSe)2 administration ameliorated plasma malondialdehyde (MDA) levels, aspartate aminotransferase (AST), alanine aminotransferase (ALT), alkaline phosphatase (ALP), lactate dehydrogenase (LDH) and GGT activities increased by CdCl2 exposure. In conclusion, this study demonstrated that co-treatment with (PhSe)2 ameliorated hepatotoxicity and cellular damage in rat liver after sub-chronic exposure with CdCl2. The proposed mechanisms by which (PhSe)2 acts in this experimental protocol are its antioxidant properties and its capacity to form a complex with Cd. On the contrary, the administration of (PhSe)2 potentiated acute hepatic damage induced by carbon tetrachloride (CCl4), as manifested by an increase in biochemical parameters (AST, ALT, ALP, GGT and BT) and severe alteration in histopathology. This study also demonstrated a potentiation of lipid peroxidation levels and a consequent depletion of important antioxidant defenses including catalase and ascorbic acid, suggesting that the oxidative damage is related to the potentiation effect induced by (PhSe)2. Considering the results obtained, could be suggested that (PhSe)2 present a hepatoprotective effect depending of experimental protocol. / O fígado apresenta extraordinária pluralidade funcional, destacando-se no controle de produção de energia, defesa imunológica e reserva volêmica. No meio ambiente e ocupacionalmente, o ser humano está exposto a uma variedade de compostos hepatotóxicos, como por exemplo, no uso de tintas e seus derivados (2-nitropropano), reagentes químicos (tetracloreto de carbono) e na exposição ao cigarro (cádmio e 2-nitropropano). Portanto, é interessante o estudo de terapias que previnam ou até mesmo revertam à intoxicação causada por estes compostos. Considerando o crescente interesse por compostos orgânicos de selênio, em especial o disseleneto de difenila ((PhSe)2) que possui propriedades farmacológicas mais amplas como: efeitos anti-úlcera, antiinflamatório e antinociceptivo, anti- hiperglicemiante, protege contra a discinesia orofacial induzida por reserpina e haloperidol e pode atuar na facilitação da formação de memória em camundongos. Deste modo, os efeitos hepatoprotetores deste composto frente a diferentes modelos de dano hepático (2-nitropropano, cádmio e tetracloreto de carbono) foram examinados. Os resultados obtidos neste estudo demonstraram que a administração de (PhSe)2 (100 µmol/kg) reduziu os níveis de marcadores hepáticos e os níveis de peroxidação lipídica quando comparado ao grupo tratado com 2-nitropropano (2-NP). Além disso, os exames histológicos revelaram que o tratamento com 2-NP causou alterações degenerativas nos hepatócitos e que o (PhSe)2 foi capaz de proteger, evidenciando o efeito hepatoprotetor desse composto sobre o dano hepático induzido por 2-NP. O efeito do pós-tratamento com (PhSe)2 sobre o dano hepático induzido com 2-NP também foi investigado. Este composto restaurou a atividade plasmática das enzimas aminotransferases e os níveis de uréia quando comparado ao grupo tratado com 2-NP. Na maior dose (100 mol/kg), o (PhSe)2 causou uma diminuição na atividade da enzima -glutamil transferase (GGT) e restituiu o aumento nos níveis de peroxidação lipídica hepáticos e renais quando comparado ao grupo tratado com 2-NP. O tratamento com 2-NP reduziu a atividade hepática da catalase, entretanto não alterou a atividade da superóxido dismutase (SOD) e os níveis de ácido ascórbico, sugerindo que a inibição da CAT pode estar relacionada com o aumento nos níveis de peroxidação lipídica hepática nos ratos tratados com 2-NP. Resultados similares foram encontrados quando o dano hepático foi induzido por cádmio (Cd), um contaminante ambiental implicado em várias doenças. O conteúdo de Cd determinado nos ratos expostos ao cloreto de cádmio (CdCl2) provêm evidências de que o fígado é o maior alvo da toxicidade deste metal. A concentração de cádmio no fígado foi em torno de 3 vezes maiores que os níveis encontrados no rim. O (PhSe)2 reduziu em torno de 6 vezes os níveis deste metal no fígado dos ratos expostos ao CdCl2. Além disso, a administração de (PhSe)2 causou uma redução nos níveis de malondialdeído plasmáticos (MDA), na atividade das aminotransferases, na fosfatase alcalina (ALP), lactato desidrogenase (LDH) e GGT quando comparado ao grupo tratado com cádmio. Em conclusão, esse estudo demonstrou que o tratamento concomitante com (PhSe)2 reduziu a hepatotoxicidade e o dano celular em fígado de ratos expostos ao cádmio. O mecanismo proposto para ação do (PhSe)2 pode ser devido as suas propriedades antioxidantes ou pela sua capacidade de formar um complexo com Cd. Em contraste, a administração de (PhSe)2 potencializou o dano induzido por tetracloreto de carbono (CCl4), o que foi demonstrado pelo aumento dos níveis de marcadores bioquímicos (AST, ALT, ALP, GGT and BT) e pela severa alteração na histologia. Esses estudos também demonstraram que a administração de (PhSe)2 potencializou os níveis de peroxidação lipídica com consequente depleção das defesas antioxidantes, como a catalase e o ácido ascórbico, sugerindo que o dano oxidativo está relacionado com este efeito. Considerando os resultados obtidos, podemos sugerir que o disseleneto de difenila apresenta um efeito hepatoprotetor dependendo do modelo experimental.

Conselho Nacional de Desenvolvimento Científico e Tecnológico / The liver presents extraordinary functional diversity, particularly in the control of energy production, immune defense and volemic reserve. The human being is exposed occupationally and in the environment to a variety of hepatotoxic compounds, such as the use of paints and their derivatives (2-nitropropane, 2-NP), chemical reagents (carbon tetrachloride, CCl4) and exposure to cigarette (2-NP). Therefore, it is interesting the study of therapies to prevent or even reverse the poisoning caused by these compounds. Considering that reactive oxygen species (ROS) have an important role in various diseases, especially in liver diseases, the use of antioxidant therapies should be considered. In this context, the heterocyclic compounds containing selenium in their structures have attracted the attention of researchers. Thus, this study investigated the antioxidant activity of 3-alkynyl selenophenes in models of oxidative damage in vitro and ex vivo in rats (Wistar, male, weighing 200-300g). A class of 3-alkynyl selenophene compounds with different substitutions was tested, with the objective to assess their antioxidant profile and their possible toxic effect in vitro. As a result, 3-alkynyl selenophenes had antioxidant activity, but this activity was dependent on the presence of terminal alkynes in the molecule or easy conversion to it. The possible toxic effect of 3-alkynyl selenophenes was evaluated through the activity of the enzyme δ-aminolevulinate dehydratase (δ-ALA-D) in vitro. The results showed that none of 3-alkynyl selenophenes inhibited the activity of this enzyme, suggesting that this class of compound did not present toxicity on this enzyme. From these results, selenophene h (compound that had the best antioxidant activity in vitro) was selected for the evaluation of its protective effect against oxidative damage induced by 2-NP and CCl4 (ex vivo). Selenophene h (25 mg/kg) protected against the increase of markers of liver damage (aspartate aminotransferase (AST) and alanine aminotransferase (ALT) activities) and oxidative stress induced by administration of 2-NP in rats. 2-NP induced microscopic changes, evaluated by histopathological inspections, that were protected by this compound. Selenophene h showed a protective effect against the increase of lipid peroxidation and inhibition of activity of δ-ALA-D in animals treated with 2-NP. Selenophene h protected against oxidative damage induced by CCl4 in rats. A single dose of CCl4 caused significant hepatotoxicity, evidenced by elevated plasma enzyme activity of AST and ALT, increased incidence of histopathological lesions, increased lipid peroxidation levels and the activity of Glutathione-S-transferase (GST), decreased levels of ascorbic acid and the activity of catalase and δ-ALA-D. In conclusion, 3-alkynyl selenophene protected from all these changes, confirming its hepatoprotective effect. Considering the results, we suggest that 3-alkynyl selenophene, an antioxidant, may be a useful therapy for the oxidative damage induced by 2-NP or CCl4 . / O fígado apresenta extraordinária pluralidade funcional, destacando-se no controle de produção de energia, defesa imunológica e reserva volêmica. No meio ambiente e ocupacionalmente, o ser humano está exposto a uma variedade de compostos hepatotóxicos, como por exemplo, no uso de tintas e seus derivados (2-nitropropano, 2- NP), reagentes químicos (tetracloreto de carbono, CCl4) e na exposição ao cigarro (2-NP). Portanto, é interessante o estudo de terapias que previnam ou até mesmo revertam a intoxicação causada por estes compostos. Considerando que as espécies reativas de oxigênio (EROs) apresentam importante papel sobre diversas patologias, em especial nas doenças hepáticas, o uso de terapias antioxidantes deve ser considerada. Neste contexto, destacam-se os compostos heterocíclicos contendo selênio em sua estrutura. Deste modo, neste estudo investigou-se a atividade antioxidante de 3-alquinil selenofenos em modelos de dano oxidativo in vitro e ex vivo em ratos (Wistar, machos, pesando entre 200 300 g). Para esse fim, testou-se uma classe de compostos 3-alquinil selenofeno, com diferentes substituições na estrutura química, com o objetivo de avaliar o perfil antioxidante e seu possível efeito tóxico in vitro em ratos. Como resultado, 3- alquinil selenofenos tiveram atividade antioxidante, porém esta atividade foi dependente da presença de um alquino terminal na molécula ou da fácil conversão da molécula a um alquino terminal. Além disso, o possível efeito tóxico dos 3-alquinil selenofenos foi avaliado através da atividade da enzima δ-aminolevulinato desidratase (δ-ALA-D) in vitro. Os resultados obtidos demonstraram que nenhum dos 3-alquinil selenofenos testados inibiu a atividade desta enzima, sugerindo que esta classe de compostos não apresentou toxicidade sobre a atividade da δ-ALA-D. A partir destes resultados, selecionou-se o selenofeno h (que obteve melhor atividade antioxidante in vitro) para a avaliação do seu efeito protetor contra o dano oxidativo induzido por 2-NP e CCl4 em ratos (ex vivo). O selenofeno h (25 mg/kg) protegeu contra o aumento dos marcadores de dano hepático (aspartato aminotranferase (AST) e alanina aminotransferase (ALT)) e de estresse oxidativo induzidos pela administração do 2-NP. O 2-NP induziu alterações microscópicas avaliadas por inspeções histopatológicas as quais foram protegidas pelo composto. O selenofeno h demonstrou efeito protetor contra o aumento da peroxidação lipídica e inibição da atividade da δ-ALA-D nos animais tratados com 2-NP. Além disso, o selenofeno h protegeu contra o dano oxidativo induzido pelo CCl4 em ratos. Uma única dose de CCl4 causou significante hepatotoxicidade, evidenciada por elevação da atividade plasmática das enzimas AST e ALT, aumento da incidência de lesões histopatológicas, aumento dos níveis de peroxidação lipídica e da atividade da enzima glutationa-S-transferase (GST), bem como diminuição dos níveis de ácido ascórbico e da atividade das enzimas catalase e δ-ALA-D. A partir dos resultados demonstrados, verificou-se que o selenofeno h protegeu contra todas estas alterações, confirmando o seu efeito hepatoprotetor. Considerando os resultados obtidos, pode-se sugerir que o selenofeno h, uma molécula com atividade antioxidante, pode ser uma útil terapia contra o dano oxidativo induzido pelos hepatotoxicantes: 2-NP e CCl4.