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Standing on what, in many respects, appears to be the threshold of another Great European conflict, it has become increasingly necessary that we acquire a deeper understanding of the fundamental political, economic and nationalistic forces which led us into the last World War. As a result of such understanding it is hoped that international sympathy will be increased and the men of state will profit by the errors of their predecessors. More specifically, within this brief treatise it is purposed to relate the contribution which the Macedonian Reform Question made to the development of as well as the hostility between the two camps of European alliances. In relating the events connected with this intricate subject no attempt is made to place all responsibility for bringing about the hostile separation on any one Power, but the idea is to set forth clearly the facts as they were recorded by the men of state. The story is told, as much as possible, by allowing each Foreign Secretary, Foreign Minister or diplomat to speak for himself. Since no one statesman had a priori knowledge of all the concocted schemes of Europe, it is assumed that in most instances each was working for what he thought was the best for the interest of his country at that particular time. It is not expected that this work will represent an altogether new treatment of the question. It is maintained, however, that a much fuller treatment of the subject is given here than exists at present. It is hoped that after perusing these pages the reader will have a more accurate estimation of Macedonia's importance in European politics.

To persons who are concerned with minority groups, this study will be of interest because it deals with the Jews who have always formed a minority group wherever they have been located and have always received their share of persecution. Our purpose is to study their sufferings in England and the gradual relief from those sufferings. We have limited our study to the Jews of England, a country that for a long time has been regarded as the cradle of European Democracy. After a brief analysis of the background the study places major emphasis on the eighteenth, nineteenth and early twentieth centuries during which most of the changes took place. The timeliness of this study lies in the fact that at the present the eyes of the world are focused on the Jews as a result of the treatment they have received in Germany under the dictatorship of Adolph Hitler. To get at the real position held by the Jews in England a great deal of attention has began placed upon the memoirs, letters and comments of England's prime ministers and parliamentary leaders such as Walpole, Castlereagh, Canning, the Duke of Wellington, Palmerston, John Russell, Disraeli and others. The social and economic conditions of the period as well as events in other countries have been considered to see to what extent they affected the Jews.

This study examined male homosexuality in Spain during the early modern period in the context of social structures, race relations and gender assumptions. Since men who engaged in homosexual activity also contended with issues of status and ethnicity, the analysis focused on the interaction between their sexuality and their public personae. From this baseline, the study also examined public and official attitudes towards homosexual practices and how they shifted on the basis of social hierarchy. Over five hundred sodomy trials from the Aragonese Inquisition were examined, alongside a range of supporting archival and manuscript evidence. The use of sodomy trials allowed for an exploration of attitudes concerning the explosive mix of sexuality and hierarchy in three distinctive groups: the people of cities and towns who accused individuals of sodomy, the inquisitors who tried the latter, and the accused themselves. The analysis showed that early modern men defined sexuality on the basis of gender assumptions that upheld the masculinity of the active, usually older partner. The combination of a masculinity of penetrative sexuality and status within the community meant that homosexuality could both uphold or subvert hierarchies depending on the social identities of the active and passive partners in intercourse. Moreover, Aragonese people displayed a tendency to denounce outsiders to their communities. Inquisitorial judges, however, while demonstrating leniency towards these targets of popular persecution, reserved the harshest punishments for those who specifically challenged order by engaging in active sodomy with a social superior. These two differing strategies that separated the objectives of accusers from those of judges highlight the heterogeneous and diffuse nature of the process by which differing groups sought to impose particular views of required social order. Homosexuality in early modern Aragon emerges as a space that tested the boundaries of hierarchy and also reflected the structure of the social milieu that contextualized it.

During the sixteenth and seventeenth centuries tens of thousands of Castilians initiated lawsuits at the royal appellate courts to gain recognition of the status of hidalgo and enjoyment of legal privileges associated with this status. Appealing to a diversity of laws and customs these litigants claimed that the status of hidalgo provided such privileges as exemption from taxation, freedom from judicial torture, right to public office, and immunity from debtor's prison. Historians frequently characterize pre-modern European society as one in which the ruling classes enjoyed legal privileges on the basis of their social status or estate. Nevertheless in these contests the success or failure of litigants did not depend on the individual's ancestry or the objective application of existing laws governing privilege and status. In Early Modern Castile litigants intensely disputed one another's claims to and about privilege, and their respective definitions of status. Sources from the period reveal that royal and municipal authorities granted and recognized possession of legal privileges based on status. Paradoxically these authorities frequently denied the status of these same individuals and resisted their claims to privilege. In this dissertation I analyze disputes over privilege as a means for understanding how legal inequality actually functioned in Early Modern Castile. The responses of monarchs, royal officials, and municipal councils to claims concerning privilege (at times in the form of judicial rulings) reflected contingent factors typically shaped by their own immediate interests. Consequently both claimants to privilege and the opposing sides in these cases used available rules and procedures as resources to advance their respective causes.

In this thesis, women's involvement in medicine in the medieval and early modern periods will be read through the lens of "experience" and "experiment" as sources of validation. "Experience" was a contested term and concept in this period, and my thesis is devoted in large part to studying the changing nature of experience. "Experience" connoted both something thought or known, and something done or performed. This perspective is important because during these periods, the value and definitions of experience and experiment changed among intellectual and professional elites, effectively reframing the traditional identification of women with experimental knowledge. Rather than viewing and demoting women's expertise as "only" experience, men claimed experience as a privileged characteristic of the "new science" of experimental philosophy, excluding women from experience. The case of the Royal Society is the subject of chapter one. In the process, women's experience of their own bodies as privileged knowledge is demoted, and the idea of female "secrets" was revealed to men through science, printing, and dissection. Women were declared ignorant even of their own bodies. In chapter two, I deal with this subject through the idea that female knowledge of the body could be obtained only through female touch. Alternately, embodied knowledge was protected to some degree by its association with elite women performing Christian charity, a subject which will be explored in chapter three. Finally, in chapter four I discuss women's entry into publication through recipe collections, which illustrates the ambivalence of their authority. Even as they seem to gain a public voice, printing undercut the personal, domestic, and charitable associations that had empowered and protected women's medical work. The long chronological period of my thesis allows me to illuminate themes of continuity and uncertainty in the history of experience. In my four chapters, I have presented cases where female authority was compromised, mediated, disregarded, or appropriated by professional men, and yet retained or relocated through social and cultural forces outside the control of the profession, notably religious expectations and printing. My research demonstrates the uncertain coexistence of different types of authority, and the fluctuating power attributed to women as sources of knowledge and owners of experience. / Cette mémoire porte sur l'implication des femmes dans la médecine durant le Moyen Âge et le début de l'Époque moderne, en faisant référence à l' « expérience » et à l' « expérience scientifique » comme sources de validation de la connaissance. Comme concept, l' « expérience » faisait sujet de controverse et a connu des changements dont traite une importante partie de cette thèse. À l'époque, l'expérience désignait à la fois ce qui est connu ou pensé et ce qui est fait. L'importance de cette perspective ne peut être négligée lorsqu'on considère le développement des notions de l'expérience et de l'expérience scientifique au sein du cadre professionnel et intellectuel, et comment les changements de signification ont effectivement reformulé l'identification traditionnelle des femmes par rapport à la connaissance expérimentale. Au lieu de minimiser les compétences féminines à que des « expériences », les hommes ont revendiqué l'expérience comme concept particulier à la « nouvelle science » de la philosophie expérimentale, dont les femmes étaient forcément exclues. Cette mémoire se présente en quatre parties. Le premier chapitre traite du cas de la Royal Society, et le processus par lequel la méthode scientifique, l'imprimerie et la pratique de dissections ont dévoilé les secrets féminins aux hommes. Par conséquent les femmes ont été proclamées ignorantes de leurs corps. Dans le deuxième chapitre, on examine la conviction que le corps féminin ne peut être compris que par la main féminine. Le troisième chapitre porte sur la connaissance incarnée et l'implication de l'élite féminine et leurs bonnes oeuvres chrétiennes dans la protection de cela. Finalement dans le quatrième chapitre on examine les livres de recette et comment ces premières publications des femmes servent à illustrer l'ambivalence de l'autorité des auteurs féminins. Au même temps que celles-ci réclamaient la sphère publique, l'instrumentalisation de l'imprimerie a mené une érosion des relations de la sphère privée, telle que les oeuvres caritatifs, qui ont jusque-là servit à promouvoir l'implication des femmes dans la médecine. La période d'analyse, y compris le Moyen Âge et le début de l'Époque moderne, nous permet d'illustrer les thèmes de continuité et d'incertitude le long de l'histoire de l'expérience. Les analyses présentées au cours des quatre chapitres illustrent l'affaiblissement, la réinterprétation, le mépris et la réappropriation de l'autorité féminine par les hommes professionnels. En même temps que l'autorité féminine a subi ces attaques, son intégrité était retenue ou transférée par des forces sociales et culturelles hors de la sphère de la profession, notamment à travers les attentes religieuses et l'accès à l'imprimerie. Les conclusions présentées dans cette mémoire démontrent la coexistence incertaine entre différentes manifestations d'autorité et la puissance floue des femmes comme sources de connaissance et d'expérience.

This thesis attempts to historicize our understandings of economic rationality and economic action, specifically in the period leading up to the South Sea Bubble of 1720, an event which seemingly remains shrouded in mystery. The fundamental question addressed is what sort of "information" would have been available to people making decisions about financial assets in the early-eighteenth century? Related to this is a question of a more cultural nature: How did contemporaries determine what information was relevant and how did they evaluate its truthfulness and reliability? Through an investigation into the language used by Daniel Defoe in his widely read newspaper, Review of the Affairs of the British Nation (1704-1713), this thesis aims to show how one emblematic contemporary framed the information he deemed relevant for determining the potential of a British trade to the South-Seas and how he attempts to establish his authority as an interpreter of trade and finance. / La présente thèse vise à présenter en termes historiques notre compréhension des rationalités et des actions économiques, plus spécifiquement durant la période menant à la "South-Sea Bubble" de 1720, un événement qui reste encore mal compris. La question fondamentale abordée est quelle sorte d'« information » aurait été disponible aux personnes prenant les décisions sur les actifs financiers au début du XVIIIe siècle ? Liée à cette question en est une autre de nature plus culturelle : comment les contemporains ont-ils déterminé quelles informations étaient pertinentes et comment ont-ils évalué leur véracité et leur fiabilité ? Grâce à une étude du langage utilisé par Daniel Defoe dans son journal à grand lectorat, Review of the Affairs of the British Nation (1704-1713), le présent thèse cherche à démontrer comment un contemporain de renom a utilisé les informations qu'il jugeait pertinentes pour identifier le potentiel d'un commerce britannique avec les Mers du Sud et comment il tentait d'établir son autorité en tant qu'interprète de commerce et de finance.

This thesis provides a cultural history of anatomy in Enlightenment France (c. 1700-c.1795). It tells the overlapping stories of the rise of anatomy as a public, polite, and sociable science experienced by gentlemanly amateurs and of anatomy's consolidation as a dynamic experimental branch of natural history. The first narrative explores how eighteenth-century anatomy gained amateur adherents through textbooks, three-dimensional objects, spectacular courses, and tutors. The second offers an account of how anatomists transformed their field into a viable, utilitarian, and socially useful research discipline. This project makes contributions to the histories of science, Old Regime France, and gender, and the social history of medicine. It shows how Enlightenment anatomy enlisted a distinctive set of places, objects, and peoples. First, anatomy was produced, packaged, and disseminated to consumer audiences in traditional scholarly and pedagogical spaces, but also outside them, in venues of learning that included the court, commercial districts, museums, public spaces, private chambers, amphitheatres, and cabinets. Second, anatomical knowledge was created, conveyed, and ratified in these settings using familiar materials like corpses, as well innovative artificial materials like wax, wicker, glass, and textiles. The material culture of anatomy was inscribed in the worlds of amateur appreciation and experimental practice, where tourism played an important role in the exchange of goods and know-how. Finally, those who practised anatomy and the public which digested it achieved new recognition during this period and collectively contributed to shaping the form and content of anatomical knowledge. The result was that eighteenth-century anatomy accommodated a broader range of individuals – men and women, amateurs, medical practitioners, artists, and artisans – than ever before. / Cette thèse examine l'histoire culturelle de la science anatomique dans la France au siècle des Lumières (c.1700-c.1795). En adoptant une approche culturelle, elle étudie à la fois l'émergence de l'anatomie comme science liée à la mondanité, pratiquée par des amateurs appartenant à l'élite, ainsi que la formalisation de la discipline anatomique en tant que domaine expérimental de l'histoire naturelle. En premier lieu, cette thèse explore comment l'anatomie, à l'aide de manuels, d'objets tridimensionnels, de leçons publiques et de tuteurs, a attiré des disciples amateurs. En second lieu, elle démontre comment les anatomistes ont transformé leur champ en une discipline scientifique viable et utile pour leur société. Cette double analyse contribue donc à l'histoire des sciences, de la France d'Ancien Régime, du genre, ainsi qu'à une histoire sociale de la médecine. Cette thèse tente de démontrer comment la discipline anatomique telle que pratiquée au cours des Lumières réunissait un ensemble distinct de pratiques, d'objets et de personnes. D'abord, le savoir anatomique était produit, accumulé et disséminé au public dans des espaces pédagogiques et académiques traditionnels mais également, au-delà de ceux-ci, dans des espaces d'apprentissage plus larges qui incluaient la cour, des musées, des espaces commerciaux, des espaces publics tout comme des chambres privées ainsi que des amphithéâtres et des cabinets. Ensuite, le savoir anatomique était créé, transmis et confirmé dans ces espaces en utilisant des matériaux familiers tels que des corps, mais aussi des matériaux artificiels novateurs tels que la cire, l'osier, le verre et les textiles. Ainsi, la culture matérielle de la science anatomique s'est inscrite en lien avec la culture amateur de l'appréciation et la pratique expérimentale, où le tourisme jouait un rôle important pour l'échange d'objets et de savoirs. Finalement, les anatomistes, et leur public, ont acquis un nouveau degré de reconnaissance au cours du siècle des Lumières et ont, ensemble, contribué au développement du savoir anatomique tant au niveau de la forme que du contenu. Ces transformations ont permis à un plus grand nombre d'individus d'origines diverses – hommes, femmes, amateurs, médecins, artistes, artisans – de se familiariser avec l'anatomie.

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