<p>The majority of the vertebrate genome sequence is not coding for proteins. In recent years, the evolution of this noncoding fraction of the genome has gained interest. These studies have been greatly facilitated by the availability of full genome sequences. The aim of this thesis is to study evolution of the noncoding vertebrate genome through bioinformatic analysis of large-scale genomic datasets.</p><p>In a first analysis we addressed the use of conservation of sequence between highly diverged genomes to infer function. We provided evidence for a turnover of the patterns of negative selection. Hence, measures of constraint based on comparisons of diverged genomes might underestimate the functional proportion of the genome.</p><p>In the following analyses we focused on length variation as found in small-scale insertion and deletion (indel) polymorphisms and microsatellites. For indels in chicken, replication slippage is a likely mutation mechanism, as a large proportion of the indels are parts of tandem-duplicates. Using a set of microsatellite polymorphisms in chicken, where we avoid ascertainment bias, we showed that polymorphism is positively correlated with microsatellite length and AT-content. Furthermore, interruptions in the microsatellite sequence decrease the levels of polymorphism.</p><p>We also analysed the association between microsatellite polymorphism and recombination in the human genome. Here we found increased levels of microsatellite polymorphism in human recombination hotspots and also similar increases in the frequencies of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and indels. This points towards natural selection shaping the levels of variation. Alternatively, recombination is mutagenic for all three kinds of polymorphisms. </p><p>Finally, I present the program ILAPlot. It is a tool for visualisation, exploration and data extraction based on BLAST.</p><p>Our combined results highlight the intricate connections between evolutionary phenomena. It also emphasises the importance of length variability in genome evolution, as well as the gradual difference between indels and microsatellites.</p>

The majority of the vertebrate genome sequence is not coding for proteins. In recent years, the evolution of this noncoding fraction of the genome has gained interest. These studies have been greatly facilitated by the availability of full genome sequences. The aim of this thesis is to study evolution of the noncoding vertebrate genome through bioinformatic analysis of large-scale genomic datasets. In a first analysis we addressed the use of conservation of sequence between highly diverged genomes to infer function. We provided evidence for a turnover of the patterns of negative selection. Hence, measures of constraint based on comparisons of diverged genomes might underestimate the functional proportion of the genome. In the following analyses we focused on length variation as found in small-scale insertion and deletion (indel) polymorphisms and microsatellites. For indels in chicken, replication slippage is a likely mutation mechanism, as a large proportion of the indels are parts of tandem-duplicates. Using a set of microsatellite polymorphisms in chicken, where we avoid ascertainment bias, we showed that polymorphism is positively correlated with microsatellite length and AT-content. Furthermore, interruptions in the microsatellite sequence decrease the levels of polymorphism. We also analysed the association between microsatellite polymorphism and recombination in the human genome. Here we found increased levels of microsatellite polymorphism in human recombination hotspots and also similar increases in the frequencies of single nucleotide polymorphisms (SNPs) and indels. This points towards natural selection shaping the levels of variation. Alternatively, recombination is mutagenic for all three kinds of polymorphisms. Finally, I present the program ILAPlot. It is a tool for visualisation, exploration and data extraction based on BLAST. Our combined results highlight the intricate connections between evolutionary phenomena. It also emphasises the importance of length variability in genome evolution, as well as the gradual difference between indels and microsatellites.

Le carcinome hépatocellulaire (CHC) est la forme la plus fréquente de cancer du foie et l’une des principales causes de mortalité par cancer dans le monde. Il s’agit d’une maladie de mauvais pronostic, aux ressources thérapeutiques limitées, hétérogène sur le plan immunophénotypique et génomique, qui se développe très souvent sur un foie remanié cirrhotique. Les études moléculaires ont révélé plusieurs sous-classes de CHC caractérisés par des signatures génomiques et protéomiques distinctes. Au cours de mon travail de thèse, nous avons contribué à améliorer notre compréhension de la biologie des CHC et des classifications moléculaires en cartographiant le génome non-codant de tumeurs de CHC induites par des virus hépatotropes (VHB, VHC) et en étudiant la sous-classe moléculaire de CHC la plus agressive KRT19-positif. Nous avons établi la première carte de transcriptome à ARN non codants du CHC et révélé une forte activation intra-tumorale des rétrotransposons à LTR, qui sont principalement inhibés dans les cellules hépatiques normales, dans des CHC induits par les VHB et VHC. Certains des transcrits dérivés de LTR se sont révélés être des régulateurs clés de l’expression génique et donc activer la croissance cellulaire. Dans la deuxième étude, nous identifions une nouvelle voie de régulation des CHC KRT19-positif affectant le métabolisme énergétique de ces tumeurs. Les CHC KRT19-positif sont des tumeurs fortement glycolytiques liée à une activation de la réponse à l’hypoxie. L’excès de production par les CHC KRT19-positif de l’oncométabolite 2-hydroxyglutarate en absence de mutation des gènes IDH1 et IDH2 était associé à un profil aberrant hyperméthylé sur la lysine 9 de l’histone H3 (H3K9me3) suggérant une répression de la transcription notamment des gènes impliqués dans la différenciation cellulaire. / Hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC) is the main primary liver cancer and one of the most leading cause of cancer-related death worldwide. This heterogeneous disease with a worse prognosis has been subjected of numerous studies aimed to establish global phenotypic profiles. During my thesis, I dedicated my work to improve these classifications by identifying signatures on the non-coding genome and working on a very aggressive form of HCC expressing progenitors markers. With help of a Japanese team, we demonstrated that LTR-derived ncRNAs were active in HCC and that correlation correlates with expression of common cancer markers (GPC3) ans TP53 mutations. This signature can also be used to discriminate HCCs at high risk of recurrence. Finally, we have showed that these LTRs are detectable on prenoplastic stages in the Mdr2 KO mouse model. In parallel, I worked on HCC that expresses progenitor markers such as cytokeratin 19. Using proteomic and transcriptionnal approaches and in silico analyses, we propose that the occurrence of this type of cancer id due to an hypoxic event likely related to trans-arterial chemoembolization. These tumors have a highly glycolytic phenotype with production of an oncometabolite (2-hydroxyglutarate) that has been generally foubd in IDH1/2 mutated cholangiocarcinomas. Finally we suggest the use of metformin, type 2 diabetes drug, to reverse metabolic reprogramming and restore sensitivity to chemotherapy