The past fifteen years have yielded numerous studies of girls and the struggles they face in today's society. This dissertation examines the ways that preadolescent girls, "tweens," understand what it means to be a girl and the factors that shape their identity as a girl. Through thematic content analysis of data collected through 22 focus groups and one-on-one interviews, I argue that girlhood is a socially constructed phenomenon. The girls' perceptions of girlhood are influenced by their media consumption, their families, and their social interactions. Their understanding of girlhood includes both physical and psychological characteristics. The girls' understanding of girlhood is also reflective of stereotypical myths of femininity. The experience of girlhood, as described by the participants, is an experience of transition from child to adolescent, an experience of liminality, and includes dialectical tensions that the girls must attempt to negotiate. The girls’ experience of girlhood differs from their perceptions of ideal girlhood, and often the girls indicate that the perceptions are “real” and their personal experiences are not.

Since the passage of Title IX, there has been a steady decline of women head coaches in intercollegiate athletics. Previous research indicated that perceived treatment and access discrimination may be a plausible cause of the decline; however, research has not identified the antecedents of discrimination. Research indicates that sexism levels are associated with hiring intentions, ascription of attributes to managers, and performance appraisals. This study attempted to identify sexism as one possible antecedent of discrimination. A dyadic study between head and assistant collegiate coaches was utilized to determine the relationship between hostile and benevolent sexism, treatment and access discrimination, and intentions to leave the profession. I sampled 364 head coaches and 163 assistant coaches, creating 71 dyads. Each of the measures was validated in previous research. Results indicated that men possessed higher levels of hostile (M = 2.02, SD = 1.02) and benevolent (M = 2.33, SD = 1.01) sexists beliefs than females (M = 2.00, SD = .97, M = 1.62, SD = 1.00). Additionally, females coaches indicated significantly higher levels of perceived access discrimination (F [1, 384] = 38.05, p < .01), treatment discrimination (F [1,384] = 7.353, p < .01) and intentions to leave (F [1, 384] = 13.146, p < .01) than men. Results indicate that there is a correlation between benevolent sexism and access discrimination (r = .322, p < .001) within the coach dyads. Further, to support previous literature, this study found that 17% of the variance in intentions to leave the profession was explained by perceived treatment and access discrimination. Though the results of this study show only one relationship between sexism and perceived discrimination, the results that sexism is present in intercollegiate athletics and that females perceive higher levels of discrimination and intentions to leave the profession are an interesting finding. Sexism may have an effect on perceived discrimination; however, the relationship may be mediated through other variables such as group identity or organizational citizenship behavior. Ultimately, this study has indicated that sexist beliefs are present in intercollegiate athletics and has negative implications that should be further researched.

Wage differentials result from different years of education or experience or size of the firms, and also from other factors that do not have anything to do with the labor characteristics of the individuals. One of these factors is usually gender. The wage differential due to gender, and not to differences in labor characteristics, is called discrimination. The goal of this project is to estimate the evolution of the wages differentials and wage discrimination between males and females in Peru within and between 1997 and 2000, a time of economic recession in Peru. The wages differentials estimations show that all categories of males and females saw their real wages decreased; only blue-collar females saw their real wages increased; the return to the interaction between education and specific experience follow a linear trend. This means that more education and more experience will be rewarded at the same rate at any combination. The wage discrimination estimation shows that there was a small but significant wage discrimination in favor of women in 1997 and it disappeared by 2000. This showed that employers reduced all premiums to their employees during a period of economic recession.

<p>Aim</p><p>The purpose of this study is to investigate if there is any variance between masculine and feminine physical education teachers leadership.</p><p>Are men more authoritarian than woman in their education? Do the influence of pupils have something to do with the gender of the teacher’s? Do the pupils respect masculine physical education teachers any different compound to feminine teachers?</p><p>Method</p><p>We have studied relevant literature that consider masculine and feminine leadership. The choice was to work with senior compulsory school. We choose the community of Botkyrka, through comfort choice. The criterion for the teachers were that they would have a swedish physical education and have been working at least for 4 years. We chose to interview two male and two female physical education teachers. We gave the pupils the questionnaire so for that reason we didn´t have any external reduction. After that did we compiled the interviews and the questionnaires. At the same time did we improved relevant literature for the study. During the study had we a supervisor to guide us at Idrottshögskolan in Stockholm.</p><p>Results</p><p>The questionnaire shows that there are no significant differences between male and female teachers in authoritarian leadership.</p><p>The results show that the pupils get more respect from the masculine physical education teacher. The respondents consider that male teachers seem to have greater authority, to their benefit, which influences with a rougher voice and bigger physique. The pupils are allowed to influence the lessons regardless of the gender of the teacher.</p><p>Conclusions</p><p>A conclusion from this study shows that there are no significant differences between male and female leadership qualities.</p> / <p>Syfte</p><p>Syftet med studien är att ta reda på om det finns skillnader mellan manliga och kvinnliga idrottslärares ledarskap.</p><p>Är män mer auktoritära än kvinnor i sin undervisning? Har elevers inflytande på lektioner något att göra med om läraren är manlig eller kvinnlig? Respekteras kvinnliga idrottslärare annorlunda än manliga idrottslärare av eleverna?</p><p>Metod</p><p>Vi har forskat utifrån relevant litteratur som behandlar manligt och kvinnligt ledarskap. Urvalet blev skolor 7-9. Vi valde respektive skola i Botkyrka kommun genom bekvämlighets urval. Kriterierna för idrottslärarna var att de skulle ha svensk utbildning samt arbetat i minst 4 år. Vi valde att intervjua två manliga och två kvinnliga idrottslärare. Vi delade ut enkäterna på plats för att inte få något externt bortfall, därefter sammanställdes intervjuerna och enkäterna samtidigt som vi förkovrade oss, i den relevanta litteraturen för studien. Under studiegången har vi haft handledning av en pedagogisk handledare på Idrottshögskolan, Stockholm.</p><p>Resultat</p><p>Enkätstudien visar att det inte finns någon signifikant skillnad i det auktoritära ledarskapet mellan manliga och kvinnliga lärare. Vidare visar resultatet att manliga idrottslärare får större respekt från eleverna. Respondenterna anser att manliga idrottslärare har en större pondus med fördelar som grövre röst och större fysik, vilket lärarna anser skulle kunna leda till större respekt. Oavsett lärarens kön får eleverna vara med och påverka lektionsinnehållet.</p><p>Slutsats</p><p>En slutsats från den här studien visar att det inte kan nämnas några signifikanta skillnader mellan män och kvinnors ledaregenskaper.</p>

<p>Syfte och frågeställningar</p><p>Syftet med denna uppsats är att göra en genusanalys av utgångspunkterna i SOU 2002:5 ”Handlingsplan för ökad hälsa i arbetslivet”. Mina frågeställningar är: Hur konstrueras genus i utredaren Jan Rydhs utgångspunkter för den statliga offentliga utredningen ”Handlingsplan för ökad hälsa i arbetslivet”? Vilka kategorier/benämningar används för att beskriva grupper och individer? Vilka förklaringsmodeller för ohälsa för Jan Rydh fram i sina utgångspunkter? Vilka konsekvenser får de olika benämningar/kategorier och förklaringsmodeller för Rydhs analys av hälsoproblemen i arbetslivet?</p><p>Metod</p><p>Jag har valt att göra en textanalys av utgångspunkterna i SOU 2002:5, som presenteras i kapitel två. Jag har använt mig av olika forskningsstudier för att problematisera denna text. Mitt empiriska material har således bestått av dessa texter. Jag har tittat på motsägelser, hur Rydh behandlar olika begrepp och vilka faktorer han framhäver för att kunna påverka hälsan. Jag har även analyserat hur detta gestaltar sig utifrån ett genusteoretiskt perspektiv.</p><p>Resultat och slutsatser</p><p>Idag är nästan dubbelt så många kvinnor som män sjukskrivna, detta till trots är Jan Rydhs text till synes genusneutral och behandlar individer. I Jan Rydhs text är det inte särskiljandet som är ett problem utan de genusneutrala begreppen individ och arbetsgivare som texten främst kretsar runt. Rydh skriver i sina utgångspunkter att individer har olika förutsättningar i livet, vilket i sin tur påverkar sjukfrånvaron. Problemet idag, som Rydh ser det, är att arbetsgivare betalar samma avgift trots olika ansträngningar att minska sjukfrånvaron. Eftersom arbetsdelningen i hemmet inte har synliggjorts mellan kvinnor och män i Rydhs text blir bilden av kvinnors hälsa onyanserad. Kvinnors underordning är idag en generell problematik och leder till en ökad ohälsa bland kvinnor. Kvinnor återfinns i större utsträckning idag inom lågavlönande jobb, har sämre arbetsmiljö då mannen utgör norm, och har ofta en större total arbetsbörda emedan kvinnor fortfarande har ett större ansvar för hem och familj. Detta till trots avfärdar Rydh att det skulle kunna finnas generella orsaker till den ökande sjukfrånvaron. För att reducera skillnaderna i hälsa och öka hälsan i arbetslivet visar forskning att det är viktigt att se till hur genus påverkar hälsa för att komma åt de faktiska orsakerna till ökande sjukfrånvaro.</p> / <p>Aim</p><p>The aim of this essay is to do a gender analysis of the starting-points in SOU 2002:5 “Actionplan for increased health in working life”. My questions are: How is gender constructed in the investigator Jan Rydh´s starting-points for the official government investigation “Actionplan for increased health in working life”? What categories/designations are made to describe different people in the text? Which models of explantions does Jan Rydh raise in his starting-points? What consequences will the categories/designations and the models of explanations have on Rydh’s analysis of the health problems in working life?</p><p>Method</p><p>I have chosen to do a textanalysis of the startingpoints in SOU 2002:5, which are presented in chapter two. I have used different research studies in order to analyse SOU 2002:5. These texts have been my empirical material. I have examined contradictions; the way Rydh handles different conceptions and which factors he regards as having an effect on health. I have also analysed how this appears from a gender theoretical perspective.</p><p>Results and conclusions</p><p>Today almost twice as many women as men are on sick leave, despite this Jan Rydh´s text appears to be gender neutral and it deals with individuals. It is not the separation of sex that is the problem in the text, but the gender neutral conceptions “individual” and “employer” that the text has it focus on. Rydh writes in his starting-points that individuals have different prerequisites in life, which affect the sick leave. The problem today as Rydh sees it is that employers pay the same fee in spite of different efforts to decrease sick leave. Since the division of home labour has not been recognized in Rydh´s text the picture of women´s health is left without nuances. Women’s subordination is today a general problem that leads to decreased health among women. Women are found, to a greater extent than men in low-paid jobs; working enviroments are often adapted to male standards. Women often have a greater total working load since they have a larger responsibility for family and home. In spite of this Rydh dismisses general reasons for increased sick leave. To reduce the differences in health and increase health in the working enviroment research has shown that it is important to acknowledge the effect that gender has on health.</p>

<p>Syfte</p><p>Syftet med denna studie har varit att undersöka lärares föreställningar om kvinnligt och man-ligt samt hur dessa avspeglas i deras arbets- och förhållningssätt till elever. De två frågeställ-ningarna som använts har varit: uppfattar lärare elever som i huvudsak individer eller kön? Medverkar lärare till att genusmönster uppstår och/eller består?</p><p>Metod</p><p>Studien är kvalitativ och genomfördes i en lågstadieskola i Stockholmstrakten. Tillväga-gångssättet har varit att genom observationer av en klass, som undervisats dels av en klasslä-rare, dels av en lärare i idrott och hälsa, få fram hur lärares föreställningar om kön avspeglas i undervisningen. Lärarna meddelades att observationen gällde deras förhållnings- och arbets-sätt, inte att det var ur ett genusperspektiv. Under tre och en halv dag genomfördes observa-tionerna och efter detta genomfördes intervjuer med de berörda lärarna. Intervjuerna följde fasta frågeområden för att få fram vilka lärarnas föreställningar om manligt och kvinnligt var. Därefter sammanfördes observationer med intervjuer för att se om föreställningarna kan ha avspeglats i undervisningen. Resultatet har analyserats utifrån historikern Yvonne Hirdmans genussystemteori.</p><p>Resultat</p><p>Resultatet visar att lärare behandlar elever olika utifrån vilket kön de tillhör. Lärarna var till viss utsträckning medvetna om detta. Lärarnas föreställningar om manligt och kvinnligt har varit att kvinnor har mer omvårdande egenskaper, är stillsamma och fogliga medan män är fysiskt aktiva och har svårt för att visa ömhet. Det framkom att flickor och pojkar till viss del betedde sig på ett sätt som motsvarade dessa föreställningar.</p><p>Slutsatser</p><p>Att lärarna har föreställningar om hur flickor och pojkar ska vara och vad de förväntas göra samt att detta avspeglas i undervisningen.</p>

<p>The aim of this study was to explore representations of gender, race and sexuality in a select group of South African magazines - Men's Health, FHM, Blink, True Love, Femina and Fair Lady - between 2003 and 2005. From a feminist poststructuralist perspective, it was argued that these magazines presented particular subjectives as normative / privileging and centerig one pole within dichotomies of gender, race and sexuality.</p>

I två studier undersöktes skillnader I empati beroende på målpersons kön. I studie 1 fick 72 psykologistudenter läsa fyra berättelser där målpersonerna befann sig i besvärliga situationer och upplevde känslorna ilska, skam, rädsla och sorg. Därefter fick deltagarna skatta sin empati. Resultatet öppnade för möjligheten att sorg medförde mer empati för männen och ilska mer empati för kvinnorna. I studie 2 fick därför 101 psykologistudenter läsa en berättelse där målpersonen upplevde ilska eller sorg i en svår situation och därefter skatta sin empati. Resultatet visade en stark tendens att män som känner sorg väcker mer empati än kvinnor och att kvinnor som känner ilska väcker mer empati än kvinnor som känner sorg. Majoriteten av deltagarna var kvinnor. Målpersonens kön, känsloupplevelse och grad av empati verkar ha ett samband då en känsla kan medföra skillnader i empati mellan kön och olika känslor medföra skillnader i empati för kvinnor. / In two studies differences in empathy depending on target person’s gender was examined. In study 1 72 psychology students read four stories describing target persons in troublesome situations who experienced anger, shame, fear and sadness. Thereafter participants estimate their empathy. The results opened for the possibilities that sadness evoke more empathy for men and anger more empathy for women. Therefore in study 2 101 psychology students read a story where a target person experienced sadness or anger in a difficult situation and thereafter estimate their empathy. The result showed strong tendency that men who experiencing sadness evoke more empathy than women and women experiencing anger evoke more empathy than women experiencing sadness. The majority of participants where female. Target persons, gender, emotion and degree of empathy seem to be related when an emotion can bring difference in empathy between gender and different emotions can bring difference in empathy for women.

Gender equality is a political issue that has gained a lot of support in the last decades. Researchers have however pointed out that gender equality has a wide variety of understandings. SKL (Sveriges kommuner och landsting) is an organization that looks after the interests of local authorities and county councils in Sweden. SKL has by the government been granted 145 million Swedish crowns to support gender mainstreaming at a local level. During a period of three years, 2008-2010, funding has been given to 89 projects for this purpose. The aim of this study is to examine what meanings are given to the term “gender equality” in these projects. Is there a dominant understanding of the term? What can be said about the meanings that are identified? The method used is Carol Bacchis What´s the problem approach. The main question asked to the material is “what is the problem with gender (in)equality represented to be?” The analysis shows that the understandings of gender equality are identified in five general themes. Four of them are connected to a liberal philosophy, thus forming a dominant liberal discourse on gender equality. The remaining one has quite the opposite ideas underpinning it: one that understands gender inequality as a consequence of societal structures, norms and an asymmetrical distribution of wealth and power. To conclude I elaborate on what the liberal discursive dominance means for the question of gender equality. The risk with strategies built upon liberal ideas is that it eliminates conflicts in politics – thus depoliticizing gender equality.

AbstractTitel: Self-presentation at online dating – through a gender perspective and an age perspective.Number of pages: 44Author: Karin WestlundTutor: Amelie HössjerCourse: Media and Communication Studies CPeriod: Autumn term 2009-12-21University: Division of Media and Communications, Informatics and Media, Uppsala UniversityPurpose/Aim: The aim of this essay is to examine the phenomenon Internet dating through a gender perspective and to some extent through an age perspective. What do the members’ presentations look like? Do men and women select different ways to present themselves, and how does it look between the different age groups?Material/Method: Qualitative method with 42 presentation texts, half men, and half women in three different age groups collected from a Swedish dating site.Main results: The study shows that men and women choose to highlight their good points at self presentation in the student forum. The differences between the various age groups proved not to be significantly large. Compared to the small differences between the age groups the difference between men’s and women’s texts proved to be much more extensive. Men choose to highlight their achievements on all fronts, unlike women who are more modest in self-praise. The traditional view of male and female appearance dominates my material, but the tendency to break the stereotype exists in some few cases.Keywords: Internet, dating, gender, relations.